Category: Uncategorized

Language results are a central part of an Express Entry profile

Many people search for a language course in Canada because a test result is a requirement for federal skilled immigration through Express Entry. This article summarises the Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) page “Express Entry: Language test results”, which the page shows as last updated on 22 June 2026, and the Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks’ description of the benchmarks. It applies to Canada’s federal Express Entry system. Other immigration streams, provincial programmes and citizenship applications have their own language rules and are outside the scope of this article. Requirements change, so the IRCC page should be checked before booking a test.

The approved tests

IRCC lists five tests for Express Entry. For English, they are CELPIP-General, IELTS General Training and PTE Core. For French, they are TEF Canada and TCF Canada. The page notes that the IELTS option is the General Training version and that the One Skill Retake is not accepted. Each of the tests measures four abilities: speaking, listening, reading and writing.

Applicants must book their test with an agency approved by IRCC and pay the costs themselves, then enter the results in their Express Entry profile. Results from other bodies or test versions are not accepted for this purpose.

How long results last

IRCC states that test results must be less than two years old when a candidate completes their Express Entry profile and again when they submit their application for permanent residence. A test taken too early can therefore expire before an application is submitted, which matters for anyone who takes a course and test well ahead of applying.

What CLB and NCLC mean

IRCC assesses proficiency using the Canadian Language Benchmarks (CLB) for English and the Niveaux de compétence linguistique canadiens (NCLC) for French. The Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks describes the CLB as a descriptive scale of language ability in English as a second language, written as 12 benchmarks along a continuum from basic to advanced, reflecting the progression of knowledge and skills among adult learners.

The Centre is equally clear about what the CLB are not. It says they are not an assessment, not a curriculum, not tied to any specific instructional method, and not a description of discrete elements such as grammar structures or vocabulary items. They are a national standard for planning curricula and a framework of reference for learning, teaching, programming and assessing adult English as a second language in Canada. The scores from the approved tests are converted to benchmark levels for immigration purposes.

The Centre adds that the CLB and NCLC are recognised as the official Canadian standards for describing, measuring and recognising the language proficiency of adult immigrants and prospective immigrants, and that they were developed by the Centre but remain the property of IRCC. It also says the benchmarks give labour market associations, licensing bodies and employers a way to reference the language requirements of professions and trades to the standard.

For learners, the Centre says the benchmarks give a basis for planning language learning, setting or adjusting goals and monitoring progress, and that a shared national standard helps with recognition by professional organisations and licensing bodies across Canada.

A note on French test results

The IRCC page includes a specific note for TEF Canada. It says that results from tests taken between 11 December 2023 and 6 May 2024 required a profile update because of a recalibration of the scoring, and that applicants with such results must use the “equivalence ancien score” values. Anyone holding an older TEF Canada result should read that note before using it.

Programme minimums

IRCC sets minimum benchmark levels by programme. For the Canadian Experience Class, the page gives CLB 7 for jobs in TEER categories 0 and 1 and CLB 5 for TEER 2 and 3. For the Federal Skilled Worker Program, it gives a minimum of CLB 7 for the first official language, and CLB 5 for the second where one is claimed. For the Federal Skilled Trades Program, it gives CLB 5 for speaking and listening and CLB 4 for reading and writing.

Because these thresholds and the points attached to language results are set by the government and can be changed, applicants should read the current IRCC page rather than relying on an earlier summary.

Choosing a preparation course

A course aimed at an approved test is sensible only if it prepares for the exact test that will be booked, since the formats of CELPIP, IELTS General Training and PTE Core differ. Learners can check which of the five tests suits their language and situation, and book with an approved agency once their preparation is complete, within the two-year window.

The bottom line

Express Entry accepts five approved language tests, with results measured against the CLB for English and the NCLC for French and valid for two years. The benchmarks themselves are a standard for describing ability, not a test or a course. Anyone planning a course should check the programme minimum that applies to them on the current IRCC page and time the test so that the result is still valid at application.

Sources

• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, “Express Entry: Language test results”
• Centre for Canadian Language Benchmarks, “On CLB”

An award, not a national qualification

Students and parents in the United States often meet the Seal of Biliteracy as a line on a graduation certificate or transcript. It is easy to mistake it for a national language qualification, which it is not. This article summarises the Seal of Biliteracy website’s own description of the award and its implementation guidelines. It applies to the United States, where the standard is set state by state, and it does not describe any equivalent in the United Kingdom or elsewhere. It is general information.

What the Seal is

The Seal of Biliteracy website describes it as an award given by a school, school district or state in recognition of students who have studied and attained proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation. It says the award was designed to be given by a district or state, although an individual school site or school programme may also choose to implement it.

The site gives three stated purposes: to encourage students to pursue biliteracy, to honour the skills students attain, and to provide evidence of skills that can be attractive to employers and to college admissions offices. The site displays a map that classes states as having an approved state seal, as considering one, as at an early stage, or as having none yet, so coverage is uneven.

Who sets the standard

The implementation guidelines for state education agencies say that in most states the state education agency sets the criteria for the Seal and the required or allowed implementation options, based on directives from the state legislature or state board of education. A separate page on equity states that the actual standard is determined independently by each state and, in some states, by the local municipality or school district.

The consequence is that a Seal earned in one state is not automatically equivalent to a Seal from another. The guidelines encourage state agencies to collaborate to establish interstate recognition and point out that reciprocal agreements already exist in other areas, such as teacher certification. They describe this as an encouragement, not a current guarantee.

The proficiency levels

For languages other than English, the guidelines say students should demonstrate at least Intermediate Mid on the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines. The equity page reports that the level most states currently require ranges from Intermediate Low to Advanced Low, with Intermediate Mid and Intermediate High the most common. Some states have established more than one level, and the guidelines suggest that states consider a two-tier Seal with a higher option in the Advanced range, particularly for bilingual or dual-language programmes.

The guidelines also say that both native and non-native speakers should provide comparable evidence across all modes of communication, in both social and academic contexts. That is a notable feature: the target is what a learner can do in the language, not how much they know about it.

Evidence that can be used

The guidelines list several routes to demonstrate proficiency. Nationally available tests named include the Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate exams, STAMP4S, AAPPL, ALIRA, the ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI and OPIc) and Reading and Writing Proficiency Tests. They also mention tribal language assessments and a signed language proficiency interview. Portfolios are recommended as a way to record performance, with LinguaFolio given as an example. For English, proficiency may be shown through high school graduation requirements or a validated test of proficiency for English learners. For other languages, the guidelines say states determine which assessments are acceptable, requiring proficiency on a validated test.

The guidance emphasises equity. It warns that requiring only formal or external assessments may disadvantage some populations or language communities when no assessment is available or affordable, and recommends offering more than one way to show the required level.

What the Seal does not tell you

The Seal certifies a level reached at the point of high school graduation according to a state or district standard. It does not by itself say which test was used or which ACTFL level was reached, since those vary between states. It is not a substitute for a standardised exam in the way that a certificate from a testing body is, and the website does not present it as one. For someone applying to a university or employer, the underlying evidence, such as an AP score or an ACTFL-based assessment, may say more than the seal itself.

The site says in its guidance that the Seal is relevant to admissions offices and employers, but it does not state that any particular institution must recognise it, and the guidelines call for postsecondary recognition to be developed rather than assumed.

Practical points for families comparing language courses

Families comparing language courses in the United States can check three things: whether the state has an approved Seal, what level it requires, and which assessments it accepts. If a course prepares students for AP or an ACTFL-based test, that evidence may count toward the Seal in some states. Adult learners are outside the Seal’s scope, since the award is tied to high school graduation, and they are better served by the standalone tests and certificates covered elsewhere on this site.

The bottom line

The Seal of Biliteracy is a school, district or state award for students who reach proficiency in two or more languages by high school graduation. Its guidelines recommend a minimum of Intermediate Mid on the ACTFL scale for non-English languages, but each state sets its own standard, and the states currently differ. It is a useful record of achievement within a state, but its value elsewhere depends on the underlying evidence and on how the receiving institution treats it.

Sources

• The Seal of Biliteracy, “The Seal of Biliteracy”
• The Seal of Biliteracy, “Level of Language Proficiency Required”
• The Seal of Biliteracy, “Evidence of Language Proficiency Required”
• The Seal of Biliteracy, “Equity and Access to Opportunity to Earn the Seal of Biliteracy”
• The Seal of Biliteracy, “Implementation Guidelines for State Education Agencies (SEAs)”

A common step with confusing wording

Anyone applying for a UK visa with documents in another language, or arranging other official paperwork, meets the phrase certified translation. Agencies use it in many senses, and some make it sound more complicated than it is. This article looks only at what the official GOV.UK pages say, and it flags what they do not say. It concerns UK immigration guidance and GOV.UK’s general document-certification page; other bodies such as courts, registrars or foreign authorities set their own rules.

What the Home Office visitor guidance requires

The Home Office guide to supporting documents for visitor visas says that if you submit a document that is not in English or Welsh, it must be accompanied by a full translation that can be independently verified by the Home Office. It then lists four things each translation must contain: confirmation from the translator that it is an accurate translation of the original document, the date of the translation, the translator’s full name and signature, and the translator’s contact details.

Two points follow. First, the standard is a full translation, not a summary, and the translation must be verifiable, which is why contact details are required. Second, the checklist is about the content of the translator’s statement. It does not, in the wording quoted here, require a particular professional membership or qualification.

What other visa pages say

Other GOV.UK visa pages use shorter wording. The Skilled Worker visa page, for example, says that if your documents are not in English or Welsh you will also need to provide a certified translation, without setting out the four elements on that page. That is a reason to read the guidance for your specific route, and to treat the visitor guide’s list as a sensible minimum rather than the universal text for every visa. Guidance can also change, so check the current page before you submit.

GOV.UK’s general page on certifying documents

GOV.UK also has a page on certifying a document, which mostly deals with certified copies. It says the person certifying a copy should write that it is “Certified to be a true copy of the original seen by me”, sign and date it, print their name and add their occupation, address and telephone number, and that they may charge a fee. It then has a short section on certifying a translation: if you need to certify a translation of a document that is not written in English or Welsh, ask the translator to confirm in writing on the translation that it is a “true and accurate translation of the original document”, along with the date of the translation and their full name and contact details.

Notice the small differences. The general page asks for the statement “true and accurate translation” and does not mention a signature in the wording quoted, while the visitor guide asks for a signature. In practice a translator who includes all of these elements, an accuracy statement, the date, full name, signature and contact details, will cover both. The safest approach is to give the translator both lists and the exact wording each page uses.

What the sources do not say

The pages read here do not say whether an applicant may translate their own documents, whether the translator must be a member of a named professional body, or whether the translation must be notarised. They also do not say how the Home Office verifies a translation beyond requiring that it be independently verifiable and include the translator’s contact details. Do not rely on an agency’s claim about what is mandatory without finding it in the guidance for your route. If the guidance is silent, ask the body that will receive the document.

Practical checklist

Ask the translator to translate the whole document, including stamps, seals, handwritten notes and reverse sides where relevant. Ask for the accuracy statement, date, full name, signature and contact details on the translation itself. Keep the original, the translation and any certified copy together and consistent in names and dates. Check the guidance for your visa route immediately before you submit. And allow time: translators cannot always turn documents around at once, though nothing in the sources gives standard timescales.

For anyone considering translation as a career, the professional route has its own qualifications, which are covered in our guide to becoming a translator or interpreter. The GOV.UK pages do not link certification to those qualifications.

The bottom line

For a UK visitor visa, GOV.UK says a foreign-language document needs a full translation that the Home Office can independently verify, with the translator’s accuracy confirmation, the date, their full name and signature, and their contact details. Other pages use shorter wording, and the general certifying page asks for a “true and accurate translation” statement. Neither says which qualifications a translator must hold, so check the guidance for your specific route.

Sources

• Home Office (GOV.UK), “Visiting the UK: guide to supporting documents”
• GOV.UK, “Skilled Worker visa: Documents you’ll need to apply”
• GOV.UK, “Certifying a document”

Two things that look alike from a distance

Both use hand movements, and both appear in school and community settings, so it is easy to assume Makaton is a simplified version of British Sign Language (BSL). The organisations behind each say that is wrong. This article draws on a joint statement by The Makaton Charity and the British Deaf Association (BDA) and on other pages on the Makaton Charity’s website, and on the Scottish Government’s 2024-25 survey of language teaching in schools. The Makaton material is the charity’s own description of its programme, not independent research.

What the joint statement says

The joint statement says Makaton and BSL are entirely distinct and used by very different communities. It describes Makaton as a communication programme, developed over 50 years ago, that combines speech, signing and symbols, specifically aiding people with learning or communication difficulties. It says Makaton is not a complete, natural language like BSL but a supplementary communication system, that it has adapted a number of BSL signs but uses them alongside spoken English and symbols in English word order, and that it is a key communication method for over 100,000 people, primarily hearing people with communication difficulties.

By contrast, the statement says BSL is a complete, natural language with its own extensive vocabulary and syntax, that it has existed for centuries, and that it is primarily used by the Deaf community in the UK, alongside Irish Sign Language in Northern Ireland. It is independent of spoken English and uses hand and body movements, facial expressions and eye gaze to convey meaning. The statement adds that sign language is not international, with hundreds of different sign languages around the world. Its most practical line for learners is that Makaton is not appropriate for interaction with Deaf people because it is not a complete or natural sign language.

How Makaton describes itself

On its own pages, the charity describes Makaton as a programme that uses symbols, signs and speech to enable people to communicate and supports the development of skills such as attention and listening, comprehension, memory and expression. Signs are used with speech in spoken word order, and it says symbols can help people with limited speech or who cannot or prefer not to sign. It also says research has shown signs and gestures are easier to learn than spoken words, a claim the charity makes without a citation on the page cited, so it should be treated as the charity’s statement.

Its guidance on getting started says to use only a few signs and symbols at the beginning, chosen by the people who know the child or adult best, adding more as they learn, and to always speak as you sign. It also promotes training options and an app, and those have not been evaluated here.

What BSL learning involves

Learning BSL means learning a language with its own grammar, which the statement notes uses hand and body movements, facial expression and eye gaze. It is the language of the Deaf community, so a learner’s aim is usually to communicate with Deaf people. Our guide to learning BSL covers qualifications and the BSL Act 2022. The joint statement also notes the legal recognition of BSL through the BSL (Scotland) Act 2015 and the UK-wide BSL Act in 2022.

Where both appear in schools

The Scottish Government survey shows how both feature in education. Under the 1+2 policy, British Sign Language can be taught as a third language, and the 2024-25 survey found BSL and Scots continued to gain popularity as primary school L3s, ranking behind Spanish but ahead of French for the first time. Special schools reported providing language and communication systems including Makaton, PECS, Signalong and BSL, and about 84 per cent of the special schools that responded were providing language learning opportunities. The survey treats BSL as a language and Makaton as a communication system, which mirrors the charity’s and BDA’s positions. This is Scottish data and should not be read as UK-wide.

Choosing what to learn

If you want to communicate with Deaf people, learn BSL, since the joint statement says Makaton is not appropriate for that. If you support a child or adult with learning or communication difficulties, Makaton is designed for that purpose and the people around the individual usually choose which signs to start with. If you are unsure, ask a speech and language therapist, teacher or the relevant service; the sources read here do not cover clinical assessment. And when a course advert uses the word “sign language”, check which system it teaches.

The bottom line

Makaton and BSL are distinct, according to both the Makaton Charity and the British Deaf Association: BSL is a complete natural language used by the Deaf community, while Makaton is a supplementary system combining speech, signs and symbols for people with communication difficulties. Makaton should not be used as a substitute for BSL with Deaf people. Choose the one that fits the people you want to communicate with, and check any course description carefully.

Sources

• The Makaton Charity and British Deaf Association, “Makaton and British Sign Language (BSL): joint statement”
• The Makaton Charity, “What is Makaton?”
• The Makaton Charity, “How to start using Makaton”
• The Makaton Charity, “How Makaton works”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: Findings from the 2024-25 survey of local authorities”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: 2024-25 survey, Language learning in special schools”

Three nations, three approaches

Wales and Scotland have language acts that many learners have heard of. Northern Ireland’s equivalent, the Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022, is newer, and it took years to bring into effect. This article summarises what the legislation says about Irish and Ulster Scots and where things stand, using the text on the legislation database and a UK Government written statement of 28 January 2026. It covers Northern Ireland only.

What the Act says about Irish

The Act inserts a new Part 7B into the Northern Ireland Act 1998. Its stated purpose is to provide official recognition of the status of the Irish language in Northern Ireland by providing for an Irish Language Commissioner, providing for the development of standards of best practice on the use of Irish by public authorities, and requiring public authorities to have due regard to those standards. The text says this is in addition to other recognition of Irish, including provisions elsewhere in the Northern Ireland Act 1998, the North/South Co-operation (Implementation Bodies) Order 1999 and provision relating to Irish-medium education. It also says nothing in that Part affects the status of the English language.

The Commissioner is appointed jointly by the First Minister and deputy First Minister. The principal aim is to enhance and protect the use of Irish by public authorities in the provision of services to the public, and the Commissioner must prepare and publish standards of best practice, monitor and promote compliance, and investigate complaints. The Commissioner may also provide advice and guidance to public authorities.

Ulster Scots and the Ulster British tradition

The Act also provides for a Commissioner for the Ulster Scots and the Ulster British tradition. The UK Government statement describes that role as promoting the language, arts and literature associated with Ulster Scots and developing and promoting guidance about Ulster Scots. Section 5 inserts a duty into the Education (Northern Ireland) Order 1998, which says it is the duty of the Department to encourage and facilitate the use and understanding of Ulster Scots in the education system. Section 4 repeals the Administration of Justice (Language) Act (Ireland) 1737.

Commencement: not everything came at once

The Act received Royal Assent in December 2022, but its main provisions needed to be brought into force separately. The UK Government statement says that provisions in sections 1, 2 and 3 establishing a Director of the Office for Identity and Cultural Expression, the Irish Language Commissioner and the Commissioner for Ulster Scots were commenced in May 2023. In October 2025 the First Minister and deputy First Minister appointed Pól Deeds as Irish Language Commissioner, Lee Reynolds as Commissioner for the Ulster Scots and Ulster British Tradition, and Dr Katy Radford as Director of the Office of Identity and Cultural Expression.

On 28 January 2026 the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland said he was commencing further provisions in sections 1, 2 and 3 so that the post-holders could carry out their duties. The legislation database records that sections 4 and 5 came into force on 26 February 2025. Because commencement can continue to evolve, check the legislation database for the current position rather than relying on this summary.

What this means for learners

The Act is about public authorities and their services, standards and complaints, plus a duty on the Department of Education regarding Ulster Scots. It does not, in the provisions read here, create an entitlement for an adult to a language course. Irish-medium education is listed as existing recognition rather than something the Act created. Learners should therefore look to their local colleges, community organisations and online options for classes, as with any language, and use the criteria in our guide to choosing a course.

The distinction matters when reading headlines. Official recognition and standards for public bodies can influence services such as signage, correspondence or translation, but they are not the same as a right to be taught. For Ulster Scots, the education duty is on the Department to encourage and facilitate use and understanding, which is again a duty on a public body rather than an individual entitlement.

Where this sits in the wider UK picture

The Scottish Government notes that the UK ratified the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2001 in respect of Welsh in Wales, Scots and Gaelic in Scotland, and Ulster Scots and Irish in Northern Ireland. That is a useful reminder that each nation has its own framework. If you are comparing, our guides to Welsh and Scottish Gaelic cover their own acts, and they are structured differently.

The bottom line

The Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022 gives official recognition to Irish through a Commissioner and best-practice standards for public authorities, and it creates a Commissioner for Ulster Scots and the Ulster British tradition and an education duty on the Department regarding Ulster Scots. Key roles were commenced in 2023, appointments were made in October 2025 and further provisions were commenced in January 2026. None of this guarantees a place on a course, so learners should look to colleges and community providers.

Sources

• Legislation.gov.uk, “Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022, section 2: Irish language”
• Legislation.gov.uk, “Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022, section 4: Use of languages other than English in proceedings”
• Legislation.gov.uk, “Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022, section 5: Use of Ulster Scots in education”
• UK Parliament, “Written statement HCWS1282: Identity and Language (Northern Ireland) Act 2022 (28 January 2026)”
• Scottish Government, “Gaelic (policy page), on the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages”

A language with legal recognition and a learner ecosystem

Scottish Gaelic has its own legal and educational framework, distinct from those of Welsh and Irish, and it is less well known outside Scotland. This article explains what the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 did, how the Scottish Government and Bòrd na Gàidhlig describe the framework, what the 2022 census recorded, and where an adult can begin. It relates to Scotland only.

What the 2005 Act did

The Scottish Government says it passed the Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 to give Gaelic greater protection and prominence and to work towards securing its status as an official language of Scotland. Bòrd na Gàidhlig describes the Act as having received Royal Assent on 1 June 2005 and commenced on 13 February 2006, establishing the Bòrd as the public body responsible for the preservation of Gaelic as an official language that enjoys the same respect as English in Scotland.

The Bòrd says the Act requires it to prepare a National Gaelic Language Plan every five years and to ask certain public bodies to prepare and implement Gaelic language plans. Its responsibilities include advising Scottish Ministers on Gaelic matters, preparing and steering the national plan, advising on Gaelic and Gaelic education, providing guidance to public bodies on language plans, and monitoring the implementation of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The Scottish Government says the board can request that public bodies develop Gaelic Language Plans, and it published its own third plan in October 2022.

Education: Gaelic Medium and learners

The government explains that the Education (Scotland) Act 2016 supports Gaelic education: the parent of a child who has not yet started school may ask the local education authority to assess the need for Gaelic Medium Education in the area; every education authority must promote the potential provision of Gaelic Medium Education and support existing Gaelic education; and Bòrd na Gàidhlig has a duty to produce statutory guidance for Gaelic education. Local authorities can apply for the Gaelic Education Specific Grant and the Gaelic Schools Capital fund.

Separately from immersion education, Gaelic (Learners) is one of the languages that schools can offer as a first additional language under the 1+2 policy. The 2024-25 government survey found it was taught in about 5 per cent of primary schools and 8 per cent of secondary schools, which shows learner provision exists but is limited.

What the 2022 census recorded

The Scottish Government reports that the 2022 census recorded 130,161 people able to speak, read, write and/or understand Gaelic, of whom 69,701 speak Gaelic. It describes this as the first census since 1971 to show an increase in the number of people reporting an ability to speak Gaelic. These are self-reported census figures, and the categories are broad, so the number able to understand Gaelic is not the same as the number who could hold a conversation.

Where an adult beginner can start

The government points learners to two websites. LearnGaelic offers free online Scottish Gaelic learning resources, including beginner material, transcribed and translated clips from BBC ALBA, a searchable dictionary with sound clips, and a Course Finder that it says covers real-world and online classes, tuition, discussion groups and even degrees. SpeakGaelic is described by the government as a resource for people interested in learning Gaelic, and its home page invites learners to sign up free and set their own language goals.

For media exposure, the government notes that BBC ALBA launched in 2008 and that it directly funds MG ALBA, one of the channel’s partners, with approximately £13 million each year. Gaelic radio is available on BBC Radio nan Gàidheal and some commercial and community services. Those are useful for listening practice, but they are not courses, and this article has not evaluated the quality of any particular class.

Choosing a course sensibly

Because the Course Finder lists many types of provision, decide what you need first. A casual learner might use free resources and a weekly class, someone who wants qualifications might look at courses leading to accreditation, and a family considering Gaelic Medium Education should contact their local authority. The site’s guide to choosing a language course applies here: match the format to your goal, check the tutor’s background, and ask about the level and assessment. Similar principles apply to any minority language, but the availability of tutors and local classes may be more limited than for major languages.

What this article does not say

It does not claim Gaelic is compulsory in schools or that the Act gives individuals a right to services in Gaelic, since the sources read here describe planning duties for public bodies rather than individual entitlements. Check the Act and Bòrd na Gàidhlig for details if you need legal certainty. It also does not cover Scots, Irish or Welsh, which have their own arrangements.

The bottom line

The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 created Bòrd na Gàidhlig and a system of national and public-body Gaelic language plans, alongside Gaelic Medium Education provisions in the Education (Scotland) Act 2016. The 2022 census recorded 130,161 people with some ability in Gaelic, including 69,701 speakers. Adult beginners can start with the free LearnGaelic and SpeakGaelic resources and the LearnGaelic Course Finder, then choose a course that matches their goal.

Sources

• Scottish Government, “Gaelic (policy page)”
• Bòrd na Gàidhlig, “Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: 2024-25 survey, Language learning in primary schools”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: 2024-25 survey, Language learning in secondary schools”
• LearnGaelic, “Free online Scottish Gaelic learning resources”
• SpeakGaelic, “Start your Gaelic journey”

An entitlement, not a curriculum requirement

Language learning in Scotland’s schools follows a different model from the one in England, which our separate guide to the English national curriculum covers. Since 2013 the Scottish Government’s policy has been the 1+2 approach: the aim is that every child learns two additional languages beyond the language used for teaching. This article uses the Scottish Government’s policy page and its published findings from the 2024-25 survey of local authorities, released in June 2026. It covers Scotland only. Schools and local authorities decide which languages are taught within the framework.

What the policy promises

The Scottish Government describes a first additional language, called L2, which should be taught continuously from Primary 1 to the end of Secondary 3. The L2 must be a language that can be taught to National Qualification level, which the government lists as Cantonese, French, Gaelic (Learners), German, Italian, Mandarin, Spanish and Urdu. A second additional language, L3, should start no later than Primary 5 and continue to the end of Primary 7, and again at some point in the secondary years up to Secondary 3. An L3 can be any language, including British Sign Language, Latin, Scots and community languages, and pupils may sample several languages rather than studying one continuously.

The government says that between 2013 and 2023 it provided £36.8 million to local authorities to implement the approach, mostly for teacher professional learning, particularly in primary schools where the class teacher leads language learning.

What the 2024-25 survey found in primary schools

The survey collected returns from 31 of Scotland’s 32 local authorities, covering 1,657 mainstream primary, 320 mainstream secondary and 73 special schools, which the report says is about 84 per cent of primaries, 89 per cent of secondaries and 73 per cent of special schools. Responses are reported by local authorities on behalf of their schools.

In primary schools, approximately 99 per cent provided either a full or partial L2 entitlement, and 81 per cent provided the full entitlement from Primary 1 to Primary 7, up from 68 per cent in 2022-23 and 69 per cent in 2020-21. French remained the most taught L2 at about 82 per cent of primary schools, followed by Spanish at 15 per cent, Gaelic (Learners) at 5 per cent and German at 3 per cent. Italian, Mandarin and Cantonese were each offered by under 1 per cent, and Urdu did not feature as a primary L2.

Secondary schools tell a different story

In secondary schools, about 98 per cent provided either full or partial L2, but only 53 per cent provided the full entitlement from Secondary 1 to Secondary 3. That is down from 61 per cent in 2022-23 and 70 per cent in 2020-21, and 3 per cent of secondaries reported providing no L2. French was taught in about 83 per cent of secondaries, Spanish in 46 per cent, German in 16 per cent and Gaelic (Learners) in 8 per cent. Spanish grew from 23 per cent in 2020-21 to 36 per cent in 2022-23 and 46 per cent in 2024-25.

The report’s conclusion highlights the contrast, saying the survey exposed a clear distinction between primary and secondary approaches, with full implementation rising in primary and falling in secondary.

Third languages, BSL and inclusion

The survey found that L3 provision decreased in both sectors, although percentages remained high: 72 per cent of primaries and 83 per cent of secondaries. Spanish was the most taught L3, though its share slipped slightly. British Sign Language and Scots continued to gain popularity as primary L3s, behind Spanish but ahead of French for the first time, and Mandarin also grew. Special schools, of which about 84 per cent provided language learning opportunities, reported teaching systems such as PECS, Makaton, Signalong and BSL. Schools cited pupil needs and community relevance in choosing languages such as BSL, Makaton, Arabic and Ukrainian.

Challenges the schools reported

Schools reported challenges including teacher confidence, training, staff shortages and high turnover, along with specific difficulties for multi-composite classes and Gaelic Medium Education settings. They also asked for clearer progression pathways and support for embedding the L2 across all years. The government describes the overall picture as positive compared with the period before 1+2, when language learning did not typically begin before Primary 5, and it says it has committed to review the provision of modern languages in schools.

How to read the numbers

The survey is not a measure of what every child experiences. It reports school-level provision by local authorities, and the authors explain that the questions have evolved, so there is no statistical baseline from the policy’s start. They recalculated earlier figures on a consistent basis and warn that these may differ slightly from previously published values, urging caution when comparing years. Not every school answered. “Partial” entitlement means the L2 was not taught continuously across the stage, which is not the same as no teaching at all.

For families, the practical lesson is that what a child receives depends on the school and the local authority. If languages matter to you, ask a prospective school which L2 it teaches, from which year, and whether it is continuous through Secondary 3. For adult learners, the same data show which languages Scottish schools currently prioritise, which tends to shape local evening-class and exam-centre demand, although that link is an inference rather than something the survey measures.

The bottom line

Scotland’s 1+2 policy entitles pupils to learn an L2 from Primary 1 to Secondary 3 and a further L3 from Primary 5, and the 2024-25 survey shows near-universal L2 provision but only 81 per cent of primaries and 53 per cent of secondaries delivering the full entitlement. French dominates, Spanish is growing, and BSL and Scots are rising as third languages. The figures are school-reported and cautious, so check the detail for your own school.

Sources

• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: Findings from the 2024-25 survey of local authorities”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: 2024-25 survey, Methodology”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: 2024-25 survey, Language learning in primary schools”
• Scottish Government, “1+2 languages policy: 2024-25 survey, Language learning in secondary schools”
• Scottish Government, “Language learning in schools (policy page)”

British Sign Language and spoken-language interpreting are often treated as roughly the same profession with a different modality, but the professional registration that actually qualifies someone to interpret BSL in a courtroom, hospital or classroom runs through a completely separate body from the one covering spoken languages – and understanding it matters whether you’re learning BSL yourself or hiring an interpreter.

A different register from spoken-language interpreting

Where spoken-language public service interpreting sits under the National Register of Public Service Interpreters, sign language and deaf communication professionals are registered separately through NRCPD – the National Registers of Communication Professionals working with Deaf and Deafblind People. NRCPD covers a notably wider range of roles than most people expect from “BSL interpreting” alone: its own guidance describes seven distinct professional categories it registers, including sign language interpreters, translators, speech-to-text reporters, lipspeakers, deafblind interpreters, notetakers and relay-intralingual interpreters – each with its own qualification pathway rather than one blanket “BSL interpreter” qualification covering everything.

What it actually takes to register as a sign language interpreter

NRCPD is direct that registration depends on completing an approved course: “if you are interested in joining a Register you must have successfully completed an approved course.” For sign language interpreters specifically, that generally means a recognised qualification demonstrating fluency in BSL (or Irish Sign Language) alongside English, delivered through university-level programmes at institutions NRCPD has approved to deliver interpreter training. Being conversationally fluent in BSL, even at a high level, is not the same as holding one of these approved qualifications, and NRCPD’s registration process exists specifically to check that distinction before someone is listed as a registered professional.

Why legal and medical settings specifically rely on this register

Courses leading to NRCPD registration commonly include dedicated modules covering legal settings and healthcare settings specifically – recognising that interpreting a police interview or a cancer diagnosis carries different demands, terminology and ethical weight from interpreting a general conversation. In practice, agencies, courts, the NHS and education providers commissioning interpreting services commonly specify NRCPD registration as their procurement standard, in much the same way public bodies lean on NRPSI for spoken languages, because it gives them a checkable qualification standard and a formal Code of Conduct to hold an interpreter to.

What this means if you’re learning BSL with interpreting in mind

General BSL fluency courses – including those building toward Signature qualifications covered in general BSL learning guidance – are a genuine and valuable foundation, but they are a different track from the specific NRCPD-approved interpreter training that leads to registration. Anyone learning BSL with professional legal or medical interpreting as an eventual goal should identify NRCPD-approved course providers specifically, rather than assuming that reaching a high general fluency level through a standard BSL course path leads automatically to registration.

What to check before booking an interpreter, or a course toward becoming one

If you’re hiring for a legal or medical setting, it’s reasonable to ask directly whether an interpreter is NRCPD-registered and in which specific category, since “BSL interpreter” can cover several genuinely different registered roles. If you’re the one learning, ask a prospective course provider explicitly whether it is an NRCPD-approved route to registration, or a general fluency course that doesn’t itself lead to registered professional status.

Why the seven categories matter for choosing the right professional

Booking “a BSL interpreter” when what’s actually needed is a lipspeaker, a deafblind interpreter, or a speech-to-text reporter is a genuinely common mismatch, because these are distinct registered roles suited to different communication needs rather than interchangeable labels for the same service. A deafblind client, for example, may need a specific deafblind interpreting approach rather than standard BSL interpretation, and getting this wrong doesn’t just reduce service quality – it can mean the booked professional isn’t actually able to meet the communication need at all. Being specific about the actual communication requirement, not just requesting “a BSL interpreter” as a catch-all, is worth doing at the booking stage.

What this means for someone building a career across both spoken and signed languages

Some professionals do work across both a spoken language and BSL, but it’s worth being clear that this means qualifying and registering separately with NRPSI and NRCPD respectively – there’s no combined registration route that covers both, because the underlying qualifications, training providers and regulatory bodies are entirely distinct. Anyone considering this path should treat it as building two separate professional qualifications in parallel, not one qualification that happens to cover two modalities.

The bottom line

NRCPD, not NRPSI, is the register that actually qualifies someone to interpret BSL professionally in legal, medical and education settings, and it depends on completing one of a specific set of approved courses across several distinct registered categories – not simply reaching a high level of general BSL fluency. Knowing which register applies avoids confusing general language learning with the specific professional qualification legal and medical settings actually require.

Sources

• NRCPD, “Approved Courses” – nrcpd.org.uk/approved-courses

It’s a common assumption that every child in the UK studies a foreign language throughout secondary school. That’s actually only true for part of it, and only in some parts of the UK – language education is devolved, and England in particular made a significant policy change in the early 2000s that still shapes how many students arrive at further or adult language learning with genuinely different starting points.

England: compulsory at 11 to 14, optional after that

In England, the national curriculum requires maintained schools to teach a modern foreign language as a statutory subject at Key Stage 3 – broadly ages 11 to 14 – with the specific programme of study set out in law that schools must follow. What often surprises people is that this compulsion doesn’t continue into Key Stage 4: languages have not been a compulsory subject beyond age 14 in England since a 2004 policy change, meaning GCSE language study became optional at the point students choose their options, rather than a continued requirement through to 16. That single change is a major reason why language uptake at GCSE and beyond varies so widely between English schools depending on each school’s own priorities, rather than being driven by a uniform national requirement.

Why this matters for adult learners returning to a language

For anyone who went through English secondary education after 2004, this explains a common experience: solid early language teaching up to around age 14, followed by years with no formal language study at all if the subject wasn’t chosen at GCSE. That gap is structurally different from, say, someone whose education continued compulsory language study through to 16, and it’s a genuinely useful thing to be upfront about with a course provider – “I did French to Key Stage 3 but dropped it at 14” describes a specific, common starting point that a good course provider should be able to place accurately, rather than treating it as equivalent to either a complete beginner or a GCSE-level learner.

Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland set their own requirements

Because education policy is devolved, England’s Key Stage 3-only compulsion isn’t a UK-wide rule. Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland each set their own curriculum requirements independently through their own devolved education systems, and the specific compulsory years, subject framing and assessment structures can differ from England’s model in each nation. Anyone comparing their own school language background against a UK-wide assumption should check what applied specifically in the nation they were educated in, rather than assuming the English Key Stage 3-to-14 pattern applied everywhere.

What this means when choosing where to pick a language back up

Because compulsory language education effectively stops earlier than many people expect in England specifically, a meaningful number of adult learners returning to a language they “did at school” are actually returning to knowledge that’s over a decade out of active use, built to a Key Stage 3 standard rather than GCSE. That’s a genuinely different starting point from someone who continued to GCSE or A-level, and it’s worth being specific with a course provider about exactly how far your school language study actually went, rather than using a vague description like “did some French at school” that could mean anything from two years of Key Stage 3 study to a full A-level.

Why individual schools still vary within the same rules

Even within England’s single Key Stage 3 requirement, actual provision varies meaningfully between schools – some teach one language consistently across all three years, others rotate between two languages, and the intensity of teaching (how many timetabled hours per week) differs considerably by school as well. That means two adult learners who both technically had “compulsory languages to 14” in England can have genuinely different starting points depending on which school they attended, which is worth mentioning to a course provider alongside the basic Key Stage 3 fact itself.

What this means for choosing how far back to start

Because the practical gap between Key Stage 3 study and genuine current ability is often larger than people expect, particularly after a decade or more without use, it’s generally more productive for an adult learner to start a placement assessment with a course provider honestly, rather than assuming a Key Stage 3 background justifies skipping beginner-level content. A short placement test, rather than a self-assessment based on memory of school days, is the more reliable way to find the right starting point.

The bottom line

Modern foreign languages are only compulsory in England up to age 14, not through to 16, following a 2004 policy change – and the other UK nations set their own separate requirements under devolved education systems. Being precise about which stage your own school language study actually reached is a small detail that meaningfully improves how accurately a new course can place you.

Sources

• GOV.UK, “National curriculum in England: languages programmes of study” – gov.uk/government/publications/national-curriculum-in-england-languages-progammes-of-study
• House of Lords Library, “Foreign languages: primary and secondary schools” – lordslibrary.parliament.uk/foreign-languages-primary-and-secondary-schools

Not everyone taking a language GCSE or A-level is sitting in a school classroom working toward it. Adult learners, home-educated students, and anyone studying independently after leaving formal education can still sit these exams – as a “private candidate” – but the process is meaningfully different from a normal school entry, and language qualifications specifically come with an extra wrinkle worth knowing about before you commit to a course.

What a private candidate actually is

The Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ), which represents the UK’s exam boards, defines a private candidate as someone taking a GCSE, IGCSE, AS or A-level exam without being enrolled at the school or college that’s formally entering them for it. That covers a genuinely wide range of people: adults returning to study a language for career or personal reasons, home-educated teenagers, and students retaking a qualification independently after leaving school.

You can’t simply turn up and sit the exam anywhere

Private candidates in the UK can only sit GCSEs and A-levels at an approved exam centre – typically a school, college or a dedicated private candidate centre willing to register external candidates and administer the exam under proper conditions. Not every centre accepts private candidates, and not every centre that does accepts every subject, so finding a centre isn’t automatic. The JCQ maintains a searchable database of centres that accept private candidates specifically, which is the practical starting point rather than approaching a random local school and assuming they’ll take you on.

The specific problem with language qualifications

This is where languages genuinely differ from most other GCSE and A-level subjects. Where a language GCSE or A-level includes a practical or spoken language endorsement – the speaking component that sits alongside the written paper – that endorsement is reported separately on the certificate and doesn’t count toward the overall grade, but exam boards are still clear that a centre can only accept a private candidate’s entry for that qualification if the centre is actually willing and able to administer the speaking endorsement as well as the written papers. A centre happy to seat you for the written exam may not have the capacity or examiner availability to run the spoken component, which can mean a language entry is refused even where the same centre accepts private candidates for other subjects.

What this means practically when choosing a course or exam route

Because of this, it’s worth confirming with a prospective exam centre – ideally before starting a course built around a specific qualification – that they specifically accept private candidates for the spoken component of the language you’re studying, not just the subject in general. A course provider that prepares you thoroughly for a language GCSE is only genuinely useful if you can actually find a centre willing to seat you for the full qualification, spoken endorsement included, once you’re ready.

Practical steps worth taking early

Search the JCQ private candidate centre database for your specific language and level before enrolling on a course built toward it, contact shortlisted centres directly to confirm they run the speaking endorsement for private candidates (rather than assuming a listing guarantees it), and check entry deadlines separately, since private candidate registration windows often close earlier than the deadlines schools work to internally.

Why booking early matters more for languages than most subjects

Because fewer centres are able to accommodate the speaking endorsement, the pool of realistic options for a private candidate in a language subject is smaller than for something like maths or history, where almost any private-candidate centre can seat you. That smaller pool tends to fill up, particularly around the main exam season, which makes confirming a place well ahead of the entry deadline considerably more important for a language qualification than it would be for a subject with wider centre availability.

What this means for choosing a course provider in the first place

Some course providers that specialise in preparing adult and home-educated learners for language GCSEs and A-levels have existing relationships with specific exam centres and can point students toward one that reliably takes private candidates for the full qualification, speaking component included. Asking a prospective course provider directly whether they have a track record of getting their own private candidates through to a completed language qualification – not just teaching the content – is a reasonable, practical question that goes beyond simply checking the course syllabus.

The bottom line

Taking a language GCSE or A-level as a private candidate is entirely possible, but it depends on finding a centre both willing to accept external candidates and equipped to run the spoken language endorsement specifically – a requirement that doesn’t apply in the same way to most other subjects. Confirming that access exists before committing to a course avoids preparing thoroughly for a qualification you then can’t actually sit locally.

Sources

• Joint Council for Qualifications, “Private candidates” – jcq.org.uk/private-candidates
• AQA, “Private candidates: GCSEs” – aqa.org.uk/student-and-parent-support/private-candidates/subjects-and-qualifications/gcses