Category: Uncategorized

A language with its own law

Irish Sign Language (ISL) is the sign language used by the Deaf community in the Republic of Ireland. It is a separate language from British Sign Language, which is covered in Learning British Sign Language: Signature Qualifications and What the BSL Act 2022 Actually Changed, and from Makaton, which is covered in Makaton or British Sign Language?. This article summarises sections 3, 5, 6 and 7 of the Irish Sign Language Act 2017 as published on the Irish Statute Book (as enacted), a press release from the Department of Children, Disability and Equality dated 23 December 2020, and the National Disability Authority (NDA) page on finding an ISL interpreter. It covers the Republic of Ireland only. The position of sign languages in Northern Ireland is outside its scope.

Recognition and commencement

The Act was signed into law on 24 December 2017, and the government press release says a commencement order brought it into operation on 23 December 2020. Section 3 records that the State recognises the right of ISL users to use ISL as their native language, and the corresponding duty on all public bodies to provide ISL users with free interpretation when they are availing of, or seeking to access, statutory entitlements and services. It also provides that the community of persons using ISL has the right to use, develop and preserve the language. The press release says the Act recognises ISL as a native language of the State, and quotes the minister as saying that roughly 50,000 people communicate in ISL daily, of whom about 5,000 are native Deaf signers.

What public bodies must do

Under section 6, a public body must do all that is reasonable to ensure that interpretation into ISL is provided for a person who is competent in the language and cannot hear or understand English or Irish, when that person is seeking statutory entitlements or services from that body. The interpretation must be at no cost to the person concerned. The minister may make regulations requiring prior notification by a person who intends to use ISL services, and a remote, web-based service is enough to meet the duty if the ISL user consents. The section says ministers may prescribe other bodies funded by the Oireachtas as public bodies.

Who can interpret

Section 7 says a court or public body, in complying with the Act, must not engage a person to provide ISL interpretation unless that person’s competence has been verified through an accreditation scheme funded by the Minister for Employment Affairs and Social Protection. The NDA explains that the scheme meeting the criteria is the Register of Irish Sign Language Interpreters (RISLI), which has a public directory of registered interpreters holding verified, recognised qualifications and bound by a code of conduct.

The NDA lists three routes to an interpreter: freelance interpreters, interpreting agencies, and a referral agency, the Sign Language Interpreting Service (SLIS), which provides a free referral service funded by the Citizens Information Board. SLIS also runs a remote interpreting service, the Irish Remote Interpreting Service. The NDA adds that longer or more intense assignments may need two interpreters, that some assignments call for both a Deaf interpreter and a hearing interpreter, and that children should not be used to interpret for their parents in place of an interpreter.

Educational supports

Section 5 places duties on the Minister for Education. The minister is to establish a scheme of ISL classes for parents, siblings and grandparents of a deaf child, and for others in the role of guardian; a scheme of ISL support for children in recognised schools whose primary language is ISL; provision in higher education institutions for teacher training placements in ISL; and, where practicable, minimum qualifications for teachers of deaf and hard-of-hearing children. The 2020 press release describes what existed at the time: an ISL Tuition Scheme run by the Department of Education for children and their families, funding from the National Council for Special Education for teachers to undertake ISL courses, and a four-year Bachelor of Education (Irish Sign Language) pilot at Dublin City University for deaf and hard-of-hearing students, which began in September 2019. It also refers to continuing professional development delivered by Trinity College Dublin’s Centre for Deaf Studies. Those descriptions are dated December 2020, and the department is the source for current provision.

What this means for someone learning ISL

• The sections summarised here concern rights and services for ISL users and classes for families of deaf children. They do not mention classes for the general public.
• Someone learning ISL to work as an interpreter will find that public bodies and courts may engage only accredited interpreters, so accreditation under the state-funded scheme is the relevant benchmark.
• Parents, siblings and grandparents of a deaf child are the group the Act explicitly names for state-funded classes.
• Interpreting careers in the UK follow different routes, described in NRCPD Explained: What Actually Qualifies Someone to Interpret BSL Professionally.

Reporting and review

The press release notes that under section 10 of the Act the minister arranged for a report on the operation of the Act to be prepared in 2021, and says that commencement does not mean the work is complete. It also records that a company had been established to maintain the interpreter register and a quality assurance scheme requiring continuing professional development.

The bottom line

The Irish Sign Language Act 2017 recognises ISL as a native language of the State, requires public bodies to do what is reasonable to provide free interpretation for those who cannot hear or understand English or Irish, and restricts courts and public bodies to interpreters accredited under the state-funded scheme, which the NDA identifies as RISLI. For learners, the strongest state-backed provision named in the Act is for the families of deaf children, and anyone aiming to interpret professionally should look at accreditation rather than class attendance alone.

Sources

• Irish Statute Book, “Irish Sign Language Act 2017, section 3 (Recognition of Irish Sign Language)” (irishstatutebook.ie)
• Irish Statute Book, “Irish Sign Language Act 2017, section 5 (Educational supports for deaf children)” (irishstatutebook.ie)
• Irish Statute Book, “Irish Sign Language Act 2017, section 6 (Duty of public bodies)” (irishstatutebook.ie)
• Irish Statute Book, “Irish Sign Language Act 2017, section 7 (Engagement of verified competent Irish Sign Language interpreters)” (irishstatutebook.ie)
• Department of Children, Disability and Equality, “Minister Rabbitte announces commencement of the Irish Sign Language Act 2017” (23 December 2020) (gov.ie)
• National Disability Authority, “Finding an Irish Sign Language Interpreter” (nda.ie)

A small language with a recent change in status

Cornish (Kernewek) is the Celtic language of Cornwall, in England. Earlier guides on this site cover Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Irish and Ulster Scots. This article summarises pages from Cornwall Council on the language programme, on learning Cornish and on the Cornish national minority, a Cornwall Council news release of 22 January 2026 on the language’s new status, a GOV.UK press release of 24 April 2014 and the WJEC page for its Language Pathways Cornish qualifications. It concerns the Cornish language in Cornwall, and describes what those bodies say about it.

What “Part III” means and when it arrived

Cornwall Council’s language programme page states that the UK Government formally recognised Cornish in 2002 under Part II of the Council of Europe’s Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and that in 2025 the UK Government recognised Cornish under Part III of the same Charter. It says this gives stronger support, with commitments to particular areas of language development. The council’s news release of 22 January 2026 reports that the Council of Europe has approved Part III status, describing it as bringing Kernewek the same level of promotion as the other Celtic languages recognised across the British Isles, including Welsh, Manx and Gaelic. Councillors and MPs quoted in that release describe the recognition as the result of many years of campaigning. One MP says he has raised with the Prime Minister the obligations that follow from Part III, in particular changes needed so that anyone who wishes to learn Cornish can do so.

Recognition of the Cornish as a people is a separate matter. The UK Government press release of 24 April 2014 announced that the Cornish would be recognised under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, giving them the same status as the Scots, the Welsh and the Irish. Cornwall Council’s minority page adds that a council working group set up to support the Framework Convention also oversees progress against the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

The strategy behind the language

Cornwall Council says it leads the Cornish language programme and that the current strategy runs for ten years from 2026 to 2036, with four key areas: learning, community and culture, status and corpus. The programme’s stated aims include increasing the number of Kernewek speakers, giving the language a wider use and higher profile, creating favourable conditions for its use in public life and improving digital equality. The page describes the language as being in a stronger state than for a long time while still needing a programme to protect, support and develop it.

Where a new learner starts

Cornwall Council’s “Learn Cornish” page (last updated 16 July 2025) directs beginners to the Go Cornish website, which it says offers a way to find a Cornish class, learn some words and phrases and download a learning app. It also points teachers and prospective class organisers to the teachers’ association Ros Dyski, which supports people teaching the language. The council’s language pages also list a Cornish Language Office and an online translation request service.

Qualifications: WJEC Language Pathways Cornish

WJEC, the awarding body, lists Language Pathways Cornish qualifications on its website, with teaching from September 2012. The reference codes on the page show five awards: the WJEC Entry Level Pathway Award in Spoken Cornish (Entry 3), Level 1 and Level 2 Pathway Awards in Spoken Cornish, and Level 1 and Level 2 Pathway Awards in Written Cornish. WJEC describes the Language Pathways qualifications as supporting the acquisition of language skills in purposeful contexts, for learners with an interest in learning a language for the first time as well as those improving existing skills, regardless of skill on entry.

Cornwall Council’s page describes the Entry Level assessment as spoken Cornish only, with no written papers, drawn from three units: communicating personal information, education and employment, and social activities. It says candidates can choose which units they are assessed in and choose different units in later years at a higher level, so that they can deepen the range of their Cornish over time. Cornwall Council describes WJEC as offering a range of qualifications accredited under the Qualifications and Credit Framework (QCF), in which learners show what they can do with the language rather than what they can remember. The exam-centre policies, appeals procedure and complaints procedure are published by the Cornish Language Office.

Other Celtic languages on this site

• Welsh has a statutory framework and a national learner programme: Learning Welsh.
• Scottish Gaelic has a 2005 Act and a public body: Learning Scottish Gaelic.
• Irish and Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland are covered under a 2022 Act: Irish and Ulster Scots in Northern Ireland.

The bottom line

Cornish is a recognised minority language with a ten-year strategy from 2026 to 2036 and, according to Cornwall Council, Part III status under the European Charter, reported by the council as approved in January 2026. A beginner can start through the Go Cornish site and local classes, and can take WJEC Pathway awards from Entry 3 in spoken Cornish to Level 2 in spoken and written Cornish.

Sources

• Cornwall Council, “Cornish Language Programme” (cornwall.gov.uk)
• Cornwall Council, “Learn Cornish” (cornwall.gov.uk)
• Cornwall Council, “Cornish language officially granted Part III status” (22 January 2026) (cornwall.gov.uk)
• Cornwall Council, “Cornish National Minority” (cornwall.gov.uk)
• GOV.UK, HM Treasury, “Cornish granted minority status within the UK” (24 April 2014)
• WJEC, “Language Pathways Cornish” (wjec.co.uk)

When a booking can be undone

A language course booked from a website, over the phone or through an app raises a common question: can the booking be cancelled if plans change? This article summarises Part 3 of the Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, covering regulations 27 to 30, 36 and 37 as published on legislation.gov.uk. The Regulations extend across the United Kingdom, including England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. Legislation.gov.uk records pending amendments from the Digital Markets, Competition and Consumers Act 2024 to some of the provisions, and a school’s own terms can give more generous rights than the Regulations. This article is general information, not legal advice.

Which bookings are covered (United Kingdom)

Regulation 27 says the cancellation provisions apply to distance and off-premises contracts between a trader and a consumer, subject to exceptions set out in the Regulations. A course booked online, by phone or through an app is typically a distance booking. A course booked in person at a school’s own premises falls outside that description, so its cancellation terms come from the school’s contract. Regulation 27 also excludes an off-premises contract where the consumer’s payment is not more than £42, and contracts for medicinal products, health care products and passenger transport services.

The right to cancel and the 14-day period (United Kingdom)

Under regulation 29, a consumer may cancel a distance or off-premises contract at any time in the cancellation period without giving a reason. Regulation 30 says that for service contracts, and for digital content not supplied on a tangible medium, the period ends at the end of 14 days after the day on which the contract is entered into. A consumer can also withdraw an offer to enter into a contract before it is finalised, without giving a reason and without liability.

Starting a course early (United Kingdom)

Regulation 36 covers services supplied during the cancellation period. A trader may begin the service before the period ends if the consumer makes an express request and, for an off-premises contract, makes it on a durable medium. Where a consumer cancels after the service has started following such a request, the consumer must pay a proportionate amount. The amount is calculated on the total contract price or, if the total price is excessive, on the market value of what was supplied. The consumer bears no cost if the trader failed to give the required cancellation or cost information, or if the service was not supplied in response to a consumer request. For most services the right to cancel is lost once the service is fully performed, if performance began after a compliant request and the consumer acknowledged that this would happen.

Self-paced and app-based courses (United Kingdom)

A self-paced course delivered by download or online access is digital content. Regulation 37 says the trader cannot begin supply of digital content before the 14-day period ends unless the consumer gives express consent and acknowledges that the right to cancel under regulation 29(1) will be lost. A consumer bears no cost for content supplied during the period if the consumer did not consent to supply beginning early, consented without acknowledging the loss of the right, or the trader failed to provide the required confirmation. Once supply has properly begun with consent and acknowledgement, the right to cancel is lost. This site’s article on apps versus courses compares the formats, and the self-paced apps and software page introduces them.

Exceptions to look for (United Kingdom)

Regulation 28 lists contracts for which there is no right to cancel. One exception, in paragraph 1(h), covers the supply of accommodation, transport of goods, vehicle rental, catering or services related to leisure activities, if the contract provides for a specific date or period of performance. Others include personalised goods and contracts concluded at public auction. Whether any element of a study-abroad package falls into an exception depends on the terms of the booking, so accommodation and tuition included in one contract are best checked line by line.

Practical steps

Before paying, a learner can check whether the booking is made at a distance, the school’s cancellation and refund terms, whether the start date falls inside the first 14 days, and whether access to materials begins immediately. Keeping the confirmation and the written request to start early gives a record of what was agreed. This site’s guides on choosing a language course and immersion and study abroad describe what to compare before booking.

Common questions

How long is the period for a service booked online? Regulation 30 says 14 days after the day on which the contract is entered into.

Does starting lessons early forfeit the right? A trader can begin only on the consumer’s express request, and the consumer then pays a proportion for what was supplied if cancelling. Full performance after a compliant request and acknowledgement ends the right.

Do the Regulations cover a class booked at the school desk? Regulation 27 covers distance and off-premises contracts, so an on-premises booking depends on the school’s terms.

The bottom line

Across the UK, a language course booked online or by phone can usually be cancelled within 14 days of the contract, but an early start at the learner’s express request means paying a proportion for lessons used, and the right can be lost once a service is fully performed or digital content has been supplied with consent and acknowledgement. Bookings made in person at a school fall outside these provisions, and exceptions such as accommodation for a specific date should be checked in a package.

Sources

• legislation.gov.uk, “The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, regulation 27 (Application of this Part)”
• legislation.gov.uk, “The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, regulation 28 (Exceptions to the right to cancel)”
• legislation.gov.uk, “The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, regulation 29 (Right to cancel)”
• legislation.gov.uk, “The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, regulation 30 (Cancellation period)”
• legislation.gov.uk, “The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, regulation 36 (Supply of service in cancellation period)”
• legislation.gov.uk, “The Consumer Contracts (Information, Cancellation and Additional Charges) Regulations 2013, regulation 37 (Supply of digital content in cancellation period)”

Course length decides the route

A learner planning an English course in the UK first needs to know which visa route fits the length of the course. This article summarises the GOV.UK guide “Study English in the UK (Short-term study visa)”, including its overview, eligibility and application pages, and the GOV.UK overview of the Standard Visitor route. UK immigration rules apply across the United Kingdom, including England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The fees and figures below are those shown on GOV.UK in September 2026, and they can change. This article is general information, not immigration advice.

Three routes by course length (United Kingdom)

GOV.UK says the short-term study visa is for an English language course lasting longer than six months but not more than 11 months. If the course lasts six months or shorter, the guide says the learner needs a Visitor visa. If it lasts longer than 11 months, the learner needs a Student visa. GOV.UK directs anyone unsure to its “check which visa you need to study in the UK” tool.

Courses of up to six months: Standard Visitor (United Kingdom)

The Standard Visitor route allows study for courses up to six months, among other activities, and a Standard Visitor can usually stay in the UK for up to six months. Depending on nationality, a person must apply for a Standard Visitor visa before travelling, apply for an electronic travel authorisation that allows a visit of up to six months without a visa, or can visit for up to six months without either. A visitor must be able to show they will leave the UK at the end of the visit, can support themselves, can pay for a return or onward journey and will not live in the UK for extended periods through frequent or successive visits. Extra eligibility requirements apply to visits for study.

Courses of more than six and up to 11 months: short-term study visa (United Kingdom)

The short-term study visa allows a stay for the length of the course plus an extra 30 days, as long as the stay is no longer than 11 months. GOV.UK gives the following costs:

• a fee of £228 for the visa; and
• the healthcare surcharge, which GOV.UK says usually costs £776, paid as part of the online application.

Who can apply (United Kingdom)

The applicant must be 16 or older and must prove that:

• they have been accepted onto an English language course that lasts longer than six months and up to 11 months and includes no other subjects;
• the course is with an accredited institution;
• they have enough money to support themselves without working or help from public funds, or that relatives and friends can support and house them; and
• they can pay for a return or onward journey.

Applicants under 18 must also have arranged their travel and stay and have the consent of a parent or guardian.

Limits on the visa (United Kingdom)

GOV.UK lists what a short-term study visa holder cannot do. They cannot study on any other course or change their course while in the UK, study at a state-funded school, work or carry out any business, including paid or unpaid work, work experience or placements, extend the visa, bring family members or apply for most benefits or the State Pension.

Applying (United Kingdom)

Applications are made online before coming to the UK, and the earliest date is three months before travel. The application includes booking an appointment at a visa application centre to provide documents and prove identity, and the applicant takes their passport. GOV.UK says a decision usually takes three weeks once the online application, identity proof and documents are in, and a faster decision may be available for a fee. An application can be cancelled, but the fee is refunded only if UK Visas and Immigration has not started processing it.

Choosing a school

Because the visa requires an accredited institution, a learner should confirm that a prospective school is accredited and that the course matches the length and no-other-subjects conditions. The site’s guides on choosing a language course and immersion and study abroad programmes explain how format, duration and daily life vary, and the article on English requirements for UK visas covers routes where a test is required.

Common questions

Can a short-term study visa be extended? No. GOV.UK lists extending the visa among the things a holder cannot do.

Can the holder work part-time? No. GOV.UK says holders cannot work, including unpaid work, work experience or placements.

Is a course of exactly six months a visitor course? GOV.UK says a course of six months or shorter needs a Visitor visa, while the short-term study visa is for courses longer than six months.

The bottom line

For an English course in the UK, course length sets the visa. Up to six months falls under the Standard Visitor route, more than six and up to 11 months under the short-term study visa (£228 on GOV.UK’s page, plus a healthcare surcharge usually costing £776), and longer courses under the Student visa. The short-term visa requires an accredited institution and an English-only course, and it cannot be extended or combined with work.

Sources

• GOV.UK, “Study English in the UK (Short-term study visa): Overview”
• GOV.UK, “Study English in the UK (Short-term study visa): Eligibility”
• GOV.UK, “Study English in the UK (Short-term study visa): Apply”
• GOV.UK, “Visit the UK as a Standard Visitor”

A state-run language pathway

Germany runs a standard language and civics programme for newcomers, the integration course, and it ends with two tests. This article summarises English-language pages published by the German Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF) on integration courses, their content and stages, the final examination and certificate, and rights and obligations. It concerns Germany. Entitlement, obligation and cost depend on a person’s residence status, which BAMF covers in separate pages, so the rules for a particular person need to be checked with BAMF or a migration advice service. This article is general information, not legal advice.

Structure of the course (Germany)

BAMF says each integration course consists of a language course and an orientation course. It states that the general integration course comprises 700 lesson units, of which the language course takes 600 lesson units, while special courses can run to 900 language lesson units, with up to 1,000 lessons in total. A fast-track course consists of 400 language lesson units. The orientation course takes 100 lesson units. Before the course begins the provider carries out an assessment test that helps decide which stage to start at and whether a special course would be useful. Courses are full-time as a general rule, and part-time provision can be offered in exceptional cases such as employment.

What the language course covers (Germany)

BAMF lists everyday themes such as work and career, basic and further training, raising children, shopping and consumption, leisure time and social interaction, health and hygiene, media use and housing. Learners also practise writing letters and emails in German, completing forms, making telephone calls and applying for jobs. The topics vary by course type, and a youth integration course includes topics of interest to young people such as applying for an apprenticeship.

The orientation course (Germany)

The orientation course follows the language course. BAMF says it covers the German legal system, history and culture, rights and obligations, forms of community life and values such as freedom of religion, tolerance and gender equality. It ends with the “Life in Germany” test.

The German test for immigrants, the DTZ (Germany)

The language course ends with the DTZ. BAMF says the “Zertifikat Integrationskurs” is awarded on an overall result of B1. The DTZ has a written and an oral part:

• the written part lasts 100 minutes and consists of listening and reading exercises, plus a short letter; and
• the oral part lasts about 15 minutes, in which the candidate introduces themselves and talks with the examiners and another candidate about specific topics.

The certificate records overall language skills at level B1 or A2, and a candidate who has not reached A2 receives a letter confirming the result instead. To reach B1 or A2, the candidate must reach that level in the speaking part and in at least one of the other two parts, “Hearing and Reading” or “Writing”. BAMF says this means participants in literacy courses, who usually do not reach B1, can still demonstrate A2. The content is based on the core curriculum for integration courses developed by the Goethe-Institut, and a sample test paper and online exercises are available.

The Life in Germany test (Germany)

The Life in Germany test takes place on a separate date after the orientation course. BAMF says each candidate receives a paper of 33 questions with four possible answers each, and has 60 minutes. To pass the test, at least 15 of the 33 questions must be answered correctly. BAMF adds that, under the Naturalisation Test Ordinance, at least 17 of 33 must be answered correctly to prove the knowledge required for naturalisation under the Nationality Act. The online test centre offers the 310 questions and a sample paper.

Retaking and refunds (Germany)

A participant who has not passed the language test at B1 after the whole integration course can be permitted by BAMF to repeat once by attending an additional 300 lessons, with the right to sit the language test once more free of charge. BAMF’s rights page adds that passing the final examination within two years of receiving the attendance certificate allows half of the money paid for the course to be refunded. Someone who has completed a literacy course and used up their lessons can apply to repeat a maximum of 300 language lessons once, paying €2.29 per lesson unless exempt from fees.

Rights and obligations (Germany)

Participants have the right to choose a course provider locally, unless BAMF allocates a course to someone obliged to attend. The provider must confirm the likely start date, and the course should start within six weeks of registration. Entitlement expires if the course is not started within one year of registering, or attendance is interrupted for more than a year, where the participant is responsible for the delay. Participants must attend regularly and take the final examination, and must pay a contribution before each stage unless exempt. An exemption should be applied for in good time, since it is only retrospectively possible for the first module.

Other German exams

Learners who want a general German qualification rather than the integration course can compare options in this site’s article on DELF, DELE and the Goethe-Zertifikat, and the guide to choosing a language course explains how format and goal fit together.

Common questions

Does the DTZ certify B1 for everyone? BAMF says the certificate records B1 or A2 depending on the result, and a candidate below A2 receives a letter instead.

How many questions must be right in the Life in Germany test? At least 15 of 33 to pass, and at least 17 of 33 for the naturalisation purpose BAMF describes.

Is the course full-time? BAMF says full-time is the general rule, with part-time courses in exceptional cases.

The bottom line

In Germany, the integration course combines a language course to B1 with a 100-lesson orientation course and ends with the DTZ language test and the Life in Germany test. BAMF describes a 100-minute written and 15-minute oral DTZ, retakes with 300 extra lessons and one free re-sit, and a naturalisation-linked pass mark of 17 of 33 on the civics test.

Sources

• Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), “Integration courses”
• Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), “The content and stages of the procedure”
• Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), “The final examination and the certificate”
• Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF), “Rights and obligations”

English as part of the citizenship interview

Applicants for United States citizenship by naturalization take an English test as part of their interview, alongside a civics test. This article summarises the US Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) page “The Naturalization Interview and Test” and Chapter 2, “English and Civics Testing”, of Part E of Volume 12 of the USCIS Policy Manual. It concerns US federal naturalization requirements, which apply throughout the United States. It is general information, not immigration advice, and an applicant’s own circumstances determine which rules apply.

The three parts (United States)

USCIS says the English test has speaking, reading and writing components. The speaking component is not a separate exam. It is assessed by the officer during the eligibility interview on Form N-400, the application for naturalization. The Policy Manual says the applicant must generally understand and respond meaningfully to questions relevant to their naturalization eligibility. An applicant can ask for clarification, and minor errors do not prevent a pass.

Reading is a separate task. The applicant must read aloud one out of three sentences correctly, according to USCIS, and the Policy Manual says the reading must be without extended pauses and must convey the meaning of the sentence. Content words cannot be omitted or substituted.

Writing follows the same pattern. The applicant must write one of three sentences correctly, and the Policy Manual says that the officer must be able to understand what has been written. Spelling, capitalization and punctuation errors are acceptable if they do not obscure the meaning. Abbreviations are not permitted.

Vocabulary and study materials (United States)

USCIS says the study materials for the reading and writing tests focus on civics and history vocabulary. The sentences are therefore likely to draw on those themes, and learners of English preparing for the test can prepare for both the language and the subject matter together.

Two attempts (United States)

The Policy Manual says applicants receive two opportunities: an initial examination and a re-examination. USCIS says that a failed portion is retested between 60 and 90 days after the initial interview. Failing any portion after the two attempts results in denial of the application.

Exceptions for age and residence (United States)

The Policy Manual lists exceptions from the English requirement:

• an applicant aged 50 or over with 20 years as a lawful permanent resident is exempt from the English test, though the civics test is still required and an interpreter may be used; and
• an applicant aged 55 or over with 15 years as a lawful permanent resident receives the same exemption.

An applicant aged 65 or over with 20 years of lawful permanent residence receives specially designated civics test forms. A medical disability exception can be requested with Form N-648, which allows exemption from the English requirement, the civics requirement, or both.

The civics test that accompanies it (United States)

Both pages describe two versions of the civics test, and the version depends on when Form N-400 was filed. For applications filed before 20 October 2025, the 2008 test applies: an oral test of up to 10 questions drawn from 100, with 6 correct answers needed to pass. For applications filed on or after 20 October 2025, the 2025 test applies: 20 questions drawn from a bank of 128, with 12 correct answers needed. USCIS says the 2025 test can end in failure when 9 questions have been answered incorrectly, against 5 for the 2008 test. The English components are described in the same way for both versions.

Learning English for the test

Learners can practise the reading and writing sentences in the same context as the civics vocabulary, and speaking preparation matters because the interview itself is the speaking test. The site’s guides on choosing a language course, one-to-one and group learning and online live tutoring compare formats, and the piece on CEFR levels explains how levels are described in other systems.

Common questions

Is there a separate speaking exam? No. USCIS says speaking is assessed by the officer during the N-400 interview.

How many sentences must be right? One out of three for reading and one out of three for writing, according to USCIS.

Can the English test be waived? The Policy Manual lists age-and-residence exceptions and a medical disability exception using Form N-648.

Are abbreviations allowed in the writing test? The Policy Manual says abbreviations are not permitted.

What happens after a failed portion? USCIS says the failed portion is retested between 60 and 90 days after the initial interview, and the Policy Manual says failure after two attempts results in denial.

Can a reader pause while reading aloud? The Policy Manual says the sentence must be read without extended pauses and must convey its meaning.

The bottom line

In the United States, the naturalization English test assesses speaking during the N-400 interview, requires reading aloud one of three sentences and writing one of three dictated sentences, and allows two attempts, with retesting 60 to 90 days later. Age and residence exceptions and a medical disability route exist, and the civics test that accompanies it changed for applications filed on or after 20 October 2025.

Sources

• US Citizenship and Immigration Services, “The Naturalization Interview and Test”
• US Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS Policy Manual, Volume 12, Part E, Chapter 2: English and Civics Testing”

The level depends on the visa

English requirements for UK visas are not one standard. They vary by route and, for some routes, by whether the application is a first one or an extension. This article summarises the GOV.UK guidance “English language requirement levels for immigration applications” from UK Visas and Immigration, which carries a 2026 Crown copyright notice, and the GOV.UK page “Skilled Worker visa: Knowledge of English”. Immigration rules apply across the United Kingdom, including England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. The guidance covers entry clearance and permission to stay, and the levels are expressed in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). This article is general information, not immigration advice.

Required levels by route (United Kingdom)

The guidance table gives the following levels for entry clearance and for permission to stay:

• Family visa: A1 for entry clearance; A1 for a first permission to stay and A2 when applying to extend.
• Student: B2 for study at UK bachelors level or above; B1 for study below bachelors level.
• Skilled Worker: B2, except where the applicant’s most recent permission was as a Skilled Worker and was subject to a B1 requirement.
• Scale-up: B2, with the same exception for a previous B1 requirement as a Scale-up worker.
• High Potential Individual, Innovator Founder and T2 Minister of Religion: B2.
• Representative of an Overseas Business and family members of HM Armed Forces: A1.
• International Sportsperson: A1 where applying for more than 12 months.
• International Agreement (Temporary Work): B1.

The Skilled Worker change (United Kingdom)

The Skilled Worker page says an applicant must prove they can read, write, speak and understand English to at least B2. It says that a person who had the visa before 8 January 2026 and is applying to extend or update it needs B1 English and does not need to prove English again. Someone switching from the Health and Care Worker visa also does not need to provide proof again. Someone applying to switch from a different visa needs B2.

Because the guidance table shows different levels by route, an applicant changing route should check the row for the new route, not the old one.

Ways to prove English (United Kingdom)

The Skilled Worker page lists four ways of showing knowledge of English:

• a UK school qualification begun before the age of 18, namely a GCSE, an A Level, a Scottish National Qualification at level 4 or 5, or a Scottish Higher or Advanced Higher in English;
• a degree-level qualification taught in English and awarded by a UK institution, even if the study took place outside the UK;
• a degree taught in English and awarded outside the UK, for which an assessment from Ecctis is needed, which produces a code confirming equivalence to a UK bachelor’s degree or higher and that it was taught in English; and
• passing a Secure English Language Test (SELT) with an approved provider.

The page also says that a person who has already proved English in an earlier successful visa application may not have to prove it again.

Who is exempt (Skilled Worker route, United Kingdom)

The Skilled Worker page says a person does not need to prove English if a national of one of the listed countries or territories: Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, the British overseas territories, Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Malta, New Zealand, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago and the USA. A doctor, dentist, nurse, midwife or vet who has already passed an English language assessment accepted by the relevant regulated professional body also does not need to prove it again, and vets may need to have passed an assessment with the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons.

Choosing a test and a course (United Kingdom)

GOV.UK says the SELT must be with an approved provider, so a test that is not on the approved list will not satisfy the requirement. This site explains one consequence in its article on why the Duolingo English Test is not accepted for UK visas. For a description of the level scale, the article on CEFR levels from A1 to C2 sets out what each band means, and the piece on English requirements for UK citizenship and visas at B1 covers the B1 route to settlement and citizenship. Learners preparing for a test can compare formats in the site’s guide to exam preparation courses.

Common questions

Is a GCSE in English enough for a Skilled Worker application? The page lists a UK GCSE begun under 18 as one way to prove English.

Does a nurse or doctor need a SELT? The page says a person who has passed an assessment accepted by their professional body does not need to prove English again.

Can a level from an earlier visa carry over? The page says proof from an earlier successful visa application may mean it does not have to be repeated.

The bottom line

UK Visas and Immigration sets the English level by visa route, from A1 for family, representative and armed forces routes to B2 for Student degree study, Skilled Worker, Scale-up, High Potential Individual and Innovator Founder applications. Since 8 January 2026 a first Skilled Worker application needs B2, while people extending an earlier visa may still need only B1. English can be proved through UK school qualifications, a UK degree, an Ecctis-assessed degree or an approved SELT.

Sources

• GOV.UK, UK Visas and Immigration, “English language requirement levels for immigration applications”
• GOV.UK, “Skilled Worker visa: Knowledge of English”

A route into languages that is not a traditional exam

Language qualifications in the United Kingdom are often assumed to mean a GCSE or a grade at the end of a timed exam. In Scotland there is a different option. The Modern Languages for Life and Work Awards, at Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) levels 3 and 4, are ungraded awards aimed at learners of any age. This article summarises the qualification pages for the two levels published by Qualifications Scotland, whose site states it is working on a new website and shows references to both Qualifications Scotland and SQA during the transition. It covers Scotland’s qualification system and does not describe qualifications in England, Wales or Northern Ireland.

What the Awards cover

The level 3 page says the Award develops knowledge and skills in areas such as society, culture and employability, and that learners can specialise in one or two modern languages. It says the qualification covers communication, self-awareness, confidence, leadership and independent learning, and that it meets the principles of Curriculum for Excellence. The level 4 page uses the same description and lists ten languages: Cantonese, French, Gaelic (Learners), German, Italian, Mandarin, Polish, Russian, Spanish and Urdu.

Who they suit and how they are delivered

Qualifications Scotland says the Awards are open to all learners, regardless of age, academic experience or ability. It lists the groups they suit: S3 to S6 pupils, school leavers, college students, adult returners to education, trainees preparing for employment, employees studying as part of a continuing professional development programme, and people in employment who want to enhance their career prospects.

The qualification is available through schools, colleges, community organisations and volunteer-involving organisations. Entry is at the discretion of the centre, and prior learning in the subject is not essential, although the Award offers opportunities to build on earlier learning.

Structure

Each Award consists of three mandatory units worth 15 SCQF credit points in total. The units are Modern Languages for Life (6 SCQF credit points), Modern Languages for Work Purposes (6 points) and Building Own Employability Skills (3 points). At level 3 the group award code is GF0C 43, and at level 4 it is GF2H 44, with the units set at the corresponding SCQF level.

How learners are assessed

The pages say the Awards are not graded. Each unit specification sets out the evidence requirements. Evidence can be presented in any form appropriate to the contexts chosen for the assessment and the learner. It may be paper-based, such as responses to questions in English or in the target language, extended pieces of writing or folios, or recorded, whether oral, visual or electronic. Performance evidence must be supported by assessor observation checklists, oral questions and assessor records. Learners may also provide evidence through audio recordings, video diaries, blogs or other electronic means.

The absence of a grade and the flexibility of the evidence are the main differences from a conventional exam. A learner who is uncomfortable with timed written tests may find this format more accessible.

Who can deliver the Awards

Qualifications Scotland says schools are auto-approved to deliver the Awards. Centres with devolved authority for approval should use their own internal approval process, and centres without devolved authority need to come forward for approval through the organisation’s Business Development Team. It says assessors and verifiers must meet its general requirements for technical or occupational competence. The pages describe the Awards as having a wide potential market and say centres have flexibility to choose the delivery method that best suits their circumstances and learners.

Progression

The level 3 page lists progression to the same Award in one or two other modern languages, to the level 4 Award in the same language, to Modern Languages courses at SCQF level 3, and to Modern Languages for Work Purposes and Modern Languages for Life units at level 4. The level 4 page lists parallel routes to level 5 units and to other languages at level 4. Together, these routes show the Awards as a stepping stone, not an end point.

What to check before enrolling

Because entry is at the centre’s discretion, learners should ask the school, college or community organisation which languages it offers and how the units are delivered. The Awards are ungraded and are not a CEFR-based proficiency test, so learners who need an internationally recognised level, for example for study or immigration, should check the requirements of the receiving institution.

The bottom line

The Modern Languages for Life and Work Awards at SCQF levels 3 and 4 are ungraded, 15-credit qualifications open to learners of any age, offered through schools, colleges and community organisations in Scotland. They combine language learning with employability and allow flexible forms of evidence. They are a useful entry point, but learners who need a graded or externally benchmarked result should look at other qualifications.

Sources

• Qualifications Scotland (SQA), “Modern Languages for Life and Work SCQF level 3”
• Qualifications Scotland (SQA), “Modern Languages for Life and Work SCQF level 4”

A certificate designed for adult learners

Adults learning Irish in the Republic of Ireland, and abroad, need a way to show what they can do that does not depend on the school Leaving Certificate. Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge (TEG) is one such system. This article summarises the TEG website, including its introduction, its FAQs and its page for the Civil Service. Most statements about TEG’s standing, such as being the first or only system of its kind or being recognised by the Department of Education and Skills, are TEG’s own claims and are attributed accordingly. The article concerns Ireland. Irish-language provision in Northern Ireland is covered separately on this site.

What TEG is

TEG describes itself as a series of general Irish-language proficiency examinations and qualifications for adult learners, and says it is administered by the Centre for Irish Language at Maynooth University. It says exams are offered at five levels: Bonnleibhéal 1 (A1), Bonnleibhéal 2 (A2), Meánleibhéal 1 (B1), Meánleibhéal 2 (B2) and Ardleibhéal 1 (C1). The levels are broadly based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, and the exams assess speaking, listening, reading and writing.

TEG says candidates range from absolute beginners to fluent speakers, and gives examples that include adult evening-class learners, Irish tutors at a university, county council staff, journalists, teachers and students at a Canadian university. It says exams take place in ten centres in Ireland and four abroad, with exam dates and centres published for each year on its site.

Full and partial certification

The TEG FAQs say a candidate can sit the entire exam, covering listening, reading, writing and speaking, and be awarded full certification at that level, or can sit the oral exam only for partial certification. Marks for an oral-only exam are shown on the certificate of successful candidates. This suits learners whose main goal is spoken Irish, for example for work or family reasons.

The FAQs also state that each exam is independent, so a candidate does not have to pass A1 before sitting A2 and can choose whichever level is most suitable. TEG suggests that candidates talk to a teacher or TEG staff and use the syllabuses, sample papers and its online language test to judge the right level. It also says all oral exams are audio-recorded, not video-recorded.

Who can take it

According to the FAQs, anyone can sit a TEG exam, with no requirement to attend a particular course and no age restriction. That makes TEG usable by self-taught learners and by people who studied with different providers. TEG also offers an online language test, which its FAQs suggest candidates might take to get a general idea of their ability in the language before choosing a level. The test gives an indication only and is separate from the certificate exams. TEG also provides exam materials at each level, including syllabuses, exam guides, sample papers and answers, sample listening and oral exams, and chief examiner reports, which it says teachers are strongly advised to read.

Where TEG says it is recognised

TEG says its certification is recognised by the Department of Education and Skills. It states that the B2 level satisfies the entry requirement for undergraduate and postgraduate primary education courses in teacher training colleges, which it presents as an option for people who lack the required Leaving Certificate Irish grade. It also says a pass at B1 can satisfy the Irish requirement for matriculation for candidates presenting a qualification other than the Leaving Certificate, such as the International Baccalaureate or the French Baccalauréat, whose education has been in the Republic of Ireland.

TEG further says that a number of organisations in Ireland specify TEG certification as a basic requirement for employees or use TEG exams to assess applicants, and that this is particularly relevant since the Official Languages Act 2003. Anyone relying on TEG for a particular job or course should confirm the requirement directly with the employer or institution, because these statements are TEG’s own summary.

Its Civil Service page states that TEG collaborates with OneLearning and Gaelchultúr to provide Irish-language tests to civil service employees, with exams run twice a year from A1 to C1.

Choosing between TEG and a general language course

TEG is an exam and certificate, not a course. TEG’s exam-material page says the official TEG logo should not be used to advertise Irish courses, including courses that prepare for TEG or that follow TEG syllabuses, so a course that advertises itself with the TEG logo is not following TEG’s stated rule. Learners can instead check that a course is based on the published syllabus for the level they need.

The bottom line

TEG is a five-level, CEFR-based certificate for adult learners of Irish, run from Maynooth University, with full or oral-only certification and no age limit or course requirement. Its stated recognition, including by the Department of Education and Skills for teacher-training entry, comes from TEG itself and should be confirmed with the relevant employer or college. It complements classes rather than replacing them.

Sources

• Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge, “Welcome to Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge”
• Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge, “FAQs”
• Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge, “TEG & the Civil Service”
• Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge, “Exam Material”

A free government program, not a commercial course

People who arrive in Australia with limited English often assume they must pay for a language school. The Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP) is a separate option: a government service that provides English tuition at no cost to eligible people. This article summarises the Department of Home Affairs page “About the Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP)”. The program is run by the Australian Government and applies across Australia. It does not cover other English courses such as commercial schools or university programs. Eligibility depends on visa status and can change, so the department’s page should be checked directly.

What the program is

Home Affairs describes the AMEP as a free service to help eligible migrants and humanitarian entrants improve their English language skills and settle into Australia. The department says learning English will help people take part more fully in life in Australia, learn new skills to help them work and make friends.

While in an AMEP class, free childcare is available for children under school age, and the service provider helps families find out about it. People who receive Centrelink payments can earn points toward their mutual obligation requirements by learning English with the AMEP, and job seekers can be referred by their provider if they are in Workforce Australia.

Who can join

For people aged 18 or over, the department says they can join the AMEP if they speak little or no English and are a permanent resident, hold an eligible temporary visa, or are a citizen who held an eligible visa in the past. People aged 15 to 17 may be able to join and are told to talk to a provider.

The page directs readers to a separate list of eligible visas, so the visa held should be checked against that list before enrolling.

Time limits depend on the visa start date

The department says the eligible visa start date decides how much time a person has to join and learn English. If the visa started on or before 1 October 2020, the person can stay in the AMEP until they reach a vocational level of English, with no time limits for starting and finishing. If the eligible visa started after 1 October 2020, there are limits from the visa start date: the person must register with an AMEP provider within six months, start the course within 12 months and complete it within five years. The page adds that in some cases a person may be allowed to register later or stay in the program longer, and advises talking to the provider.

The difference matters for planning. A recent arrival who delays enrolment while looking for work could pass the six-month registration window, so registering early is the safer course.

Learning options

Face-to-face AMEP classes may include full-time, part-time, evening and weekend options, and are offered at around 300 locations across Australia, in major cities and regional areas. A volunteer tutor can also provide help. Learners can study remotely with a teacher’s support through distance learning, or learn at their own level for free through AMEPOnline or the program’s app on the App Store or Google Play.

The department also runs a Volunteer Tutor Scheme, which asks volunteers to support a migrant or humanitarian entrant for one to two hours a week, with free training. It says employers can get involved by offering work placements or hosting English classes for their staff.

Getting information in other languages

Fact sheets about the AMEP are available in 53 languages, according to the department, and the program can be contacted by telephone on the Department of Home Affairs enquiries line from anywhere in Australia for the cost of a local call. The department also promotes AMEP promotional flyers in many languages for sharing with family and friends who may be eligible.

Other services for people settling in Australia

The same page says that people settling permanently in Australia can use free document translation, provided by the Australian Government to support participation in employment, education and community engagement. It also points to the Translating and Interpreting Service (TIS National), which provides interpreting services for people who do not speak English.

Comparing the AMEP with other options

For those who qualify, the AMEP is likely to be the first option to check because of its cost and its childcare provision. A paid course might still suit someone who is not eligible, who has already reached the vocational level, or who needs preparation for a specific test. A person who needs a particular exam result should check what the provider offers, or look at other courses.

The bottom line

The Adult Migrant English Program gives eligible migrants and humanitarian entrants free English tuition in Australia, with free childcare while in class and several study formats. Time limits depend on when the eligible visa started, and people whose visas started after 1 October 2020 have to register within six months. Eligible people should contact an AMEP provider as early as they can.

Sources

• Department of Home Affairs (Australia), “About the Adult Migrant English Program (AMEP)”