Language learning guides

Québec runs its own free French courses for newcomers, separate from the federal language classes elsewhere in Canada. The provincial government, through its Ministère de l’Immigration, de la Francisation et de l’Intégration (MIFI), publishes the eligibility rules, course formats, application steps and financial help on quebec.ca. This article summarises those pages as they stood when last updated in June and July 2026. It covers Québec only; the federal LINC and CLIC classes are covered in the site’s piece on free English and French classes in Canada. Amounts below are in Canadian dollars, are the figures the pages state, and can change, so they should be confirmed with MIFI. This is general information.

Who can enrol

The admission pages say full-time and part-time courses are for people who meet three conditions: their place of birth is outside Canada, they are 16 or older, and they live in Québec. People who are working or studying temporarily in Québec can also apply for courses and, under certain conditions, financial assistance, but must meet the conditions tied to their immigration status. The pages warn that failing to do so can mean losing status or being refused entry, and direct readers to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. For international students, the full-time page says registration in a programme of study recognised by the Government of Canada is mandatory, that the programme must be the main occupation, and that daytime availability from Monday to Friday is needed.

What the courses cover

The courses teach the uses of French in everyday life and focus on life in Québec, including the labour market, culture and values. Levels are beginner and intermediate as measured on the Échelle québécoise des niveaux de compétence en français (Québec Scale of French Proficiency Levels). Beginner covers levels 1 to 4, with examples such as gathering information before buying food, consulting a healthcare professional and finding and renting accommodation. Intermediate covers levels 5 to 8, with examples such as writing a cover letter, discussing current events and finding out about regional economic activities. An assessment test may be needed, lasting 15 to 60 minutes depending on level, spoken and if necessary written. The courses are free, with no admission or tuition fees, although a small fee may be charged for educational material, certain activities or cultural outings. For CEFR comparisons in general, see the site’s guide to CEFR levels A1 to C2.

Full-time or part-time

• Full-time: in class or, if needed, at a distance, five days a week from Monday to Friday, 25 to 30 hours per week, with a session generally lasting 10 weeks. A course is offered wherever the student lives in Québec, in universities, cégeps, community organisations or school service centres and school boards, with a location suggested from education level, preferred location where possible and site availability.
• Part-time: in class or, if needed, at a distance, during the day or evening, on weekdays or weekends, for 6, 9, 12, 16 or 20 hours a week with some exceptions, and a session generally lasting 10 or 11 weeks. Students choose a schedule and campus when applying.

Distance courses require the student to be in Québec. The province also runs online French courses, and the part-time application page says that anyone who wants to start right away could take a fully online course beginning at the intermediate level.

How to apply and how long it takes

For part-time courses the applicant must be available to start when applying, and courses can start at any time of year. The application asks for a document proving immigration status or an individual reference number found on documents such as a Certificat de sélection du Québec (CSQ), a Certificate of acceptance from Québec (CAQ), asylum seeker documents or other MIFI correspondence. A Social Insurance Number is needed for childcare assistance, or an Individual Tax Number or Temporary Tax Number if there is no SIN. Applications are made on a French-only online platform where the applicant creates an account, then a new file. The page says courses generally begin within 70 working days if this is the first application for a part-time course, and may begin sooner.

Financial help

Both pages say financial help must be applied for at the start of a session, with 60 days from the start to apply, and that any payments must be declared on annual income tax returns to Revenu Québec and the Canada Revenue Agency, with no tax withheld at source.

• Full-time participation allowance: the page says eligible students could receive $230 per week. Students are not eligible if they already receive certain benefits, such as employment insurance, social assistance or Québec Parental Insurance Plan payments, or if they are refugee claimants. Those who receive it cannot also claim transportation assistance.
• Childcare, full-time: a maximum reimbursement of $25 per learning day for each child needing care, or for disabled dependents.
• Childcare, part-time: $9 for each child needing care to attend a class of three hours or more, provided the student takes at least four hours of French classes a week. Only one parent may claim if both take courses, and it is not paid where the carer is a spouse or family member.

Common questions

Are these courses open to people born in Canada?

The admission conditions on these pages require a place of birth outside Canada.

Is any of this federal?

No. The pages describe provincial Québec government courses run through MIFI.

The bottom line

Québec offers free full-time and part-time French courses for people born outside Canada who are 16 or older and live in Québec, at beginner and intermediate levels 1 to 8 on the provincial scale. Application is online and in French, first-time part-time courses generally start within 70 working days, and financial help depends on circumstances and the type of course. The amounts stated on quebec.ca are the ones to check before applying.

Sources

• Gouvernement du Québec, “Description of full-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)
• Gouvernement du Québec, “Description of part-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)
• Gouvernement du Québec, “Conditions for admission to part-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)
• Gouvernement du Québec, “Conditions for admission to full-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)
• Gouvernement du Québec, “Applying for admission to part-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)
• Gouvernement du Québec, “Financial assistance for full-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)
• Gouvernement du Québec, “Financial assistance for childcare costs for part-time French courses for immigrants” (quebec.ca)

Sweden funds a national language programme for adults who arrive without Swedish, called Swedish for Immigrants, or SFI. The information site Informationsverige.se explains who can join, what it teaches and how the rules changed on 1 January 2026. This article summarises two of its pages: “Swedish courses” (last updated 7 July 2026) and “Adult education” (last updated 17 March 2026). It covers Sweden only, it is general information rather than advice, and anyone applying should confirm details with their municipality, which arranges the courses.

What SFI is

Informationsverige says SFI is a programme that teaches basic Swedish to people who do not have Swedish as their native language. Participants learn to speak, read and write basic Swedish and also learn about Swedish society. The programme is free of charge. It sits within municipal adult education, usually called Komvux (short for “kommunal vuxenutbildning”), and the adult education page says that in Komvux a person can also study Swedish for immigrants.

Who is entitled to study it

A person is entitled to study SFI from 1 July of the year they turn 16 if they lack basic knowledge of the Swedish language and are, or will be, registered in the Swedish Population Register. The “Swedish courses” page adds that some courses are for asylum seekers while others are for people who have been granted a residence permit, and that courses come from different providers.

Full-time or part-time, and where

SFI can be studied full-time or part-time. Part-time study can be combined with a job, work experience or another education such as upper secondary school or another Komvux programme, and it is also possible for someone on part-time parental leave. Informationsverige says SFI programmes are arranged by the municipality where the student is registered in the population register. In certain cases a student may be able to study in another municipality, and some folk high schools also offer SFI. Those registered with the Swedish Public Employment Service (Arbetsförmedlingen) can ask their employment officer for more information.

New rules from 1 January 2026

The site says that anyone who starts SFI after 1 January 2026 has three years to complete the programme from the date they are registered in it, a date shown in their individual study plan. Anyone registered before 1 January 2026 has three years from 1 January 2026, which means they must finish by 31 December 2028. An extension may be granted in certain circumstances, but it must be requested before the three years end, by contacting the SFI teacher or the municipality. The site says there must be special circumstances, for example sick leave, parental leave or a disability, or that studies were interrupted to work or study elsewhere, and that the municipality decides.

For learners planning a move, the practical point is the clock: the three-year period starts when a person is registered in an SFI programme, not when they arrive in Sweden.

Where learners go next

Once SFI is finished, Informationsverige says a person can continue with a programme of Swedish as a second language, and it suggests speaking to the study and vocational guidance counsellor on the municipal adult education staff about applying. It also describes Occupational Swedish, a language programme adapted to different industries and professions, which teaches the Swedish needed for a specific profession. Occupational Swedish requires registration with Arbetsförmedlingen, which determines entitlement to attend.

How Komvux fits in

The adult education page describes three levels of programme: basic, upper secondary and post-upper secondary. At the basic level students study subjects that correspond to compulsory school, and at upper secondary level courses that correspond to upper secondary school. It says that before starting, a student’s knowledge is assessed so that they can begin at the right level, and that students can study one or several courses full-time or part-time. Study and occupational guidance counsellors, usually available at adult education institutions in the municipality, can help with requesting diplomas for previous education, applying for places, and finding out what a programme requires. The page adds that students with a functional impairment are entitled to the aids they need to take part on the same conditions as other students.

Comparing it with other countries

Other countries organise language provision differently. The site’s articles on Germany’s integration course, Australia’s Adult Migrant English Program and free ESOL classes in England cover how those systems work.

Common questions

Is SFI free?

Yes. Informationsverige says the programme is free of charge.

Does SFI have a time limit?

Yes. The site says three years from registration in an SFI programme, with the date shown in the individual study plan, and an extension possible in special circumstances.

The bottom line

Swedish for Immigrants is a free, municipality-run course in basic Swedish and Swedish society for adults who lack it and are or will be in the population register, from the year they turn 16. Since 1 January 2026 there has been a three-year limit from registration in the programme, with extensions for special circumstances. Afterwards students can move on to Swedish as a second language or Occupational Swedish. Course details should be confirmed with the local municipality.

Sources

• Informationsverige.se, “Swedish courses”
• Informationsverige.se, “Adult education”

Many newcomers to the Netherlands must learn Dutch to a set standard as part of a legal process called civic integration (“inburgering”). The rules changed on 1 January 2022, and the level of Dutch required now depends on which learning route a person is placed on. This article summarises the Dutch government’s explanations on Government.nl and the integration site Inburgeren.nl that Government.nl points newcomers to. DUO, the education implementation service, sends the letters that start the process. It covers the Netherlands only and describes rules as those sources state them. It is general information, not immigration advice. Language levels are those of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR), which the site explains in its guide to CEFR levels A1 to C2.

Who has to integrate

According to Government.nl, the programme is not mandatory for everyone who is new to the Netherlands; it depends on citizenship and other factors. The requirement does not apply to citizens of European Union countries, Liechtenstein, Norway, Iceland or Switzerland. Other exempt groups are children under 18, people who have lived in the Netherlands for at least eight years and were of compulsory school age during that time, people with qualifications taught in Dutch at an institution in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, people who have reached retirement age, and people coming temporarily for work, study or an exchange. Anyone who is subject to the requirement receives a letter from DUO. Inburgeren.nl adds that people can also integrate voluntarily, for instance to naturalise or apply for a stronger residence permit.

Three years to complete

Newcomers have three years to complete the process, which Inburgeren.nl calls the integration period. Under the 2021 Act, the DUO letter is sent only when a person has a citizen service number (BSN), a residence permit and a municipal registration, and it can take another eight weeks to arrive. The municipality then holds a “broad intake”, an interview plus a test of learning ability, and drafts a personal integration and participation plan (PIP). The PIP says which learning track applies and which exams must be taken. A second DUO letter gives the start date. The 2013 Act still applies to people who were already subject to the requirement before 1 January 2022.

The three learning tracks and their language levels

• B1 track. Aimed at paid or voluntary work. Within three years the participant learns to speak and write Dutch at B1, and sits language exams at that level, also known as the Dutch as a second language state exam (Nt2), together with knowledge exams. Inburgeren.nl says anyone who has followed at least 600 hours of lessons and still cannot pass at B1 should talk to the municipality about scaling down to A2.
• Education track. Designed for young people, preparing them for secondary vocational education (MBO), higher vocational education (HBO) or university. It requires Dutch at B1 or higher, and the knowledge exams are the Participation Statement Process and Knowledge of Dutch Society.
• Self-reliance track. For those for whom the other tracks are too challenging. Participants learn Dutch at A1 and learn to take part in society. A2 language exams are available but not compulsory, while the compulsory knowledge exams are the Participation Statement Process and the Labour Market and Participation module. The track ends with an interview with the municipality and a certificate.

Government.nl notes that Knowledge of Dutch Society is a standard module in all three pathways, and that the combination of language learning and taking part in society, for example through work placements or volunteering, plays a major role in the system.

Who pays

Government.nl says the government bears the cost of civic integration for asylum holders. Family migrants and other migrants must pay for their own civic integration, and municipalities provide them with assistance. Municipalities are also responsible for offering asylum holders a full programme of a learning pathway, the Labour Market and Participation module and the participation statement process. Those modules are open to family and other migrants, but such migrants arrange and finance their own learning pathway. Cost questions for exams are handled on Inburgeren.nl.

Exams under the older 2013 rules

Inburgeren.nl explains that people who are subject to the 2013 Act need language exams at A2 or higher across reading, listening, writing and speaking, plus Knowledge of Dutch Society and, depending on the date from which integration was required, the Orientation on the Dutch Labour Market and the participation statement process. Anyone unsure which law applies can check the Mijn Inburgering portal.

Start before arriving

Government.nl says that people coming to live with a family member can begin the civic integration process while still outside the Netherlands. The Government.nl page also says people can learn in a classroom or independently, and must sit an exam at the end.

Common questions

Is A2 or B1 the standard?

It depends on the Act and track. Under the 2021 Act the B1 and education tracks aim for B1 or higher and the self-reliance track for A1. The 2013 Act requires A2.

Can a person avoid the requirement?

Only if one of the exemptions in the Government.nl list applies, for example EU nationality or retirement age.

The bottom line

Dutch civic integration under the 2021 Act sets three routes with different language targets, B1 for the main work-focused route and A1 for the self-reliance route, all to be completed within three years of the requirement starting. Exemptions depend on nationality and circumstances, and costs differ for asylum holders and other migrants. Because rules differ between the 2013 and 2021 Acts, anyone affected should check the DUO letter and Mijn Inburgering for their own position.

Sources

• Government.nl, “New Civic Integration Act 2021”
• Government.nl, “Civic integration (inburgering) in the Netherlands”
• Inburgeren.nl, “Overview: Integration in the Netherlands”
• Inburgeren.nl, “Which exams: Taking the integration exam”

Ireland has two official languages, Irish and English, and a national strategy for everything else. “Languages Connect: Ireland’s Strategy for Foreign Languages in Education 2017-2026” was published by the Department of Education and Skills in December 2017, and the Department (now the Department of Education and Youth) issued an Interim Review Report and Implementation Plan to 2026 in March 2024. Both are hosted on gov.ie. This article summarises what the strategy set out, what the interim report says has changed, and which targets the report shows were met or missed. It covers the Republic of Ireland only, and it reports the Department’s own figures, which have not been independently verified here.

Why the strategy exists

The 2017 strategy says competency in foreign languages in Ireland “remains low”, that the range of languages offered by schools is not sufficiently diverse, and that too few students use mobility opportunities such as Erasmus+. It cites a 2011 survey in which 20.8% of Irish adults aged 25 to 64 knew one foreign language, against a European average of over 35%, and notes that the enterprise sector had reported a shortage of graduates skilled in trade languages. It also points out that immigrants, who make up over 11% of the population, bring languages from almost 200 countries.

The 2026 targets

The strategy lists key targets to be achieved by 2026. They include:

• raising Leaving Certificate uptake of key languages from the levels it quotes: German 13%, Spanish 11%, Italian 0.9%, Russian 0.6%, Japanese 0.6% and Arabic 0.2%;
• introducing a curricular specification for new learners of Mandarin Chinese at Leaving Certificate, and specifications for heritage speakers of Polish, Lithuanian and Portuguese;
• increasing the number of post-primary schools offering two or more foreign languages and the number of students sitting two languages for state examinations by 25%;
• raising the proportion of the higher education cohort studying a foreign language, in any capacity, to 20%;
• increasing Erasmus+ participation by at least 50%, and doubling the number of teachers on mobility programmes and of Foreign Language Assistants.

What the interim report says has been delivered

The March 2024 interim report lists actions completed over five years. The number of Foreign Language Assistants coming to work in schools has nearly doubled, and Erasmus+ participation has increased. A new Junior Cycle specification for modern foreign languages was implemented. New Leaving Certificate Established specifications in Lithuanian, Mandarin Chinese, Polish and Portuguese were developed and are being implemented, and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) was introduced in Transition Year in French, German, Spanish and Italian. It also notes that revised teacher registration requirements for curricular languages opened for applicants on 1 January 2023 and added Lithuanian, Portuguese, Polish and Mandarin Chinese as registerable subjects.

The four new Leaving Certificate languages

According to the report, the four new curricular languages became available at Leaving Certificate Established level from September 2020. They were examined for the first time in 2022, when 1,451 students presented in total: 191 in Lithuanian, 291 in Mandarin Chinese, 824 in Polish and 145 in Portuguese. Provisional State Examinations Commission statistics showed 1,693 sits in 2023, an increase of 16.7%: 210 in Lithuanian, 339 in Mandarin Chinese, 956 in Polish and 188 in Portuguese. The report adds that the Department announced Ukrainian would be examined as a non-curricular Leaving Certificate language from 2025. It says heritage-language students who attended summer language camps said they were inspired to sit their languages for the Leaving Certificate.

Targets versus actual figures

The interim report’s measurables table gives a 2016 baseline, a 2022 target, the 2022 actual and a 2026 target. Its figures include:

• Leaving Certificate candidates presenting for a foreign language: baseline 69%, 2022 target 74%, actual 73.6%, 2026 target 79%.
• Junior Certificate or Junior Cycle candidates presenting for a foreign language: baseline 87%, 2022 target 92%, actual 83.8%, 2026 target 100%.
• Schools offering two or more foreign languages in Transition Year: baseline 53%, 2022 target 75%, actual 58.4%, 2026 target 100%.
• Students on higher education courses with a language component: baseline 4% (2012/13), 2022 target 10%, actual not available, 2026 target 20%. The report says this cannot currently be tracked and that a feasibility study should be done.

Reading these columns together, the Leaving Certificate figure came close to its 2022 target, while the Junior Cycle and Transition Year figures were below theirs, on the Department’s own numbers. The Junior Cycle figure also fell below the 2016 baseline.

What it means for learners

For a student in Ireland, the practical result is a wider list of Leaving Certificate languages than before, and support for heritage speakers of Polish, Lithuanian and Portuguese as well as new learners of Mandarin Chinese. Adult learners of Irish can also read about the Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge certificate. The site’s piece on Irish under the Official Languages Act 2003 covers the separate legal position of the national language.

Common questions

Does the strategy cover Irish?

The strategy is about foreign languages. Its foreword says promoting competence in Ireland’s two official languages is also an important objective of Government but treats it separately.

Has the strategy ended?

Its title runs to 2026, and the interim report sets out an implementation plan to that year.

The bottom line

Ireland’s foreign languages strategy aims for higher uptake and more diverse languages by 2026. The Department’s March 2024 interim report shows four new Leaving Certificate languages examined since 2022 and rising numbers taking them, close to target for Leaving Certificate participation, and short of target at Junior Cycle and in Transition Year provision. These are government-reported figures for the Republic of Ireland.

Sources

• Department of Education and Skills, “Languages Connect: Ireland’s Strategy for Foreign Languages in Education 2017-2026” (assets.gov.ie)
• Department of Education, “Languages Connect Interim Review Report and Implementation Plan to 2026” (March 2024) (assets.gov.ie)
• gov.ie, “Languages Connect: Ireland’s Strategy for Foreign Languages in Education 2017-2026”

Students choosing an A level in French, German, Spanish or another modern language in England often ask what the course involves beyond “more advanced GCSE”. The Department for Education (DfE) sets the framework that every exam board specification must follow in its document “GCE AS and A level subject content for modern foreign languages”, published 18 December 2014 for teaching from 2016 and last updated on 13 July 2023. It applies to England. This article summarises that document, and it does not compare exam boards, whose specifications add their own detail. It is general information for learners and adult returners, not advice on choosing a board.

What the course is meant to achieve

The DfE describes the study of a modern language as an interdisciplinary subject with the same cognitive and academic advantages as other humanities. It says the content provides depth of knowledge, understanding and intercultural competence, and fosters transferable skills such as communication, critical thinking, autonomy, resourcefulness and creativity. The document says the content was designed to be relevant to students of all disciplines, whether or not they go on to study the subject further, and to offer a foundation for degree-level study.

Its aims include developing control of the language system to convey meaning in speech and writing, interacting effectively with users of the language including through online media, engaging critically with texts and films in the original language, and mediating between cultures and between speakers of the language and speakers of English. A level students must also develop their capacity for critical and analytical thinking, and as independent researchers, through the language of study. The AS and A level content must build on the knowledge, understanding and skills in the GCSE content, which the site’s guide to GCSE French, German and Spanish summarises.

Themes: society, culture and the arts

Specifications must require students to study themes relating to the society and culture, past and present, of the countries where the language is spoken, from two areas of interest: social issues and trends, and political and/or intellectual and/or artistic culture. The rule is one theme from each area at AS (two in total) and two themes from each area at A level (four in total). The DfE says students must use authentic spoken and written sources from a variety of contexts and genres, including online media, as stimulus material for the themes and for language development at the same time.

The language skills tested

The subject content lists what students must be able to do. It includes using language spontaneously to initiate communication, ask and answer questions, express feelings, present viewpoints, develop arguments, persuade, and analyse and evaluate in speech and writing. It requires applying knowledge of pronunciation, morphology, syntax, vocabulary and idiom, and using communication strategies such as adjusting the message, circumlocution and self-correction. Students must listen and respond to spoken passages, including some extended ones, and read and respond to a variety of texts, including contemporary, historical and literary material. They must be able to infer meaning from complex material, summarise information from spoken and written sources, and translate:

• unseen passages from the language of study into English at both AS and A level;
• unseen sentences or short texts into the language of study at AS, and an unseen passage or passages at A level.

Literature and film

At AS, the DfE says students must study one literary work or film and respond critically in writing, in the language of study, to aspects such as plot structure, characterisation and imagery. At A level, they must study two works, either a literary work and a film or two literary works. The list of literary works must include at least two of these genres: novels, series of short stories, plays, selections of poems and life writing such as autobiography or letters. The film list must include feature-length films and may include selections of short films organised by theme or director. Students cannot be assessed on both a film adapted from a literary work and the original literary work.

The individual research project

A level specifications must also require students to develop research skills in the language of study. They must show they can initiate and conduct individual research on a subject of personal interest relating to a country where the language is spoken, identify a key question and select relevant information from authentic sources including the internet, use the information to illustrate their knowledge, and analyse and summarise findings through oral presentation and discussion.

Grammar lists

An annex sets out the grammatical content for French, German and Spanish, divided by AS and A level. The DfE says the examples in the lists are indicative rather than exhaustive, and that items marked (R) require receptive knowledge only. The French AS list, for instance, covers noun gender and agreement, pronouns including relative and reflexive forms, and tenses from the present and perfect to the conditional and pluperfect, with the past historic marked (R). For other languages, awarding organisations must develop grammar appendices “comparable” in challenge and breadth to those for French, German and Spanish.

Chinese is treated differently

An annex sets out exceptions for Chinese, added in the July 2023 update. Questions and responses in listening and reading comprehension tasks must be in English unless writing skills are also intentionally being assessed. Questions about literary works and films are provided in both Chinese and English, though students still respond in Chinese.

Common questions

Does this apply outside England?

The DfE document applies to England. The site’s piece on Scotland’s 1+2 language policy covers a different system.

Can adults sit the qualification privately?

See the guide to taking a language GCSE or A level as a private candidate.

The bottom line

The DfE’s A level framework for England makes a language course a study of culture and society as well as language: four themes at A level, two works, an individual research project, translation in both directions and, for French, German and Spanish, defined grammar lists. Chinese has its own exceptions. Exam boards fill in the detail, so a learner should read the chosen board’s specification alongside this framework.

Sources

• Department for Education, “Modern foreign languages: GCE AS and A level subject content” (July 2023) (assets.publishing.service.gov.uk)
• GOV.UK, “GCE AS and A level modern foreign languages” (publication page and update history)

New Zealand approaches the English requirement for some resident visas differently from countries that rely on test scores alone. It allows evidence of an English-speaking background for certain visas, and lets some partners and older children meet the requirement by paying for English classes to be taken after arrival. This article summarises the Immigration New Zealand (INZ) pages “Meeting English language requirements” and “Learning English for families of resident visa applicants”. It concerns New Zealand visas only, and the fees and rules are those shown on the pages at the time of writing. Requirements differ by visa, so INZ’s visa-specific pages are the authority. This is general information, not immigration advice.

Where an English-speaking background can be used

INZ says that for visas other than skilled residence visas, an applicant may be able to use an English-speaking background to meet the requirement. It lists visas it applies to, including the Employees of Relocating Business Resident Visa, the Entrepreneur Resident Visa, several residence from work visas (such as the Long Term Skill Shortage List Resident Visa and the Talent visas) and the Parent Resident Visa and Dependent Child Resident Visa. For the Dependent Child Resident Visa, INZ says use of the background is conditional on the parent’s category: a dependent child cannot use it if the parent holds a skilled residence visa.

INZ says the route does not apply to the Accredited Employer Work Visa, to skilled residence visas or to working holiday visas. It states that a higher level of English is required for the Accredited Employer Work Visa and skilled residence visas, and that a background cannot be used as evidence for them.

What counts as a background

For education, INZ says evidence can include certificates showing the applicant was taught in English for all the years at primary school and at least 3 years of secondary school, or for 5 years at secondary school, or a tertiary qualification taught in English that took 3 or more years to complete. It also lists specific qualifications with minimum results, including British or Singapore GCE A levels (a C pass, with subjects including English Language, Literature or Use of English), the International Baccalaureate full diploma in English medium, the Cambridge Certificate of Proficiency in English (a C pass), and the New Zealand tertiary entrance qualification gained on completing Year 13.

Beyond education, INZ says an applicant can show competence through the countries they live or have lived in and for how long, whether they or their family speak English or other languages, whether English was needed in current and past work and at what level, and qualifications that needed skill in English. If the background is insufficient evidence, INZ says it may ask for an English language test result.

Lessons for partners and dependants aged 16 and over

INZ says that for some visas, a partner and dependent children aged 16 and older must show they can speak and understand English, and there are no English requirements for children under 16. The visas that allow family members to meet the requirement through classes include the skilled residence visas, the business visas and the residence from work visas listed on its page. If a partner or child does not pass the test, INZ says the applicant must pay for English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) classes, and INZ can approve the application once the payment is made. The family has 5 years to complete the classes after arrival, and INZ says a refund is available if the family never enters New Zealand on the resident visa, requested within 6 months of the visa expiring.

The cost depends on the level shown by a test. INZ’s published table for IELTS gives a total of NZD 1,735 for an overall score of 4.5 or more but less than 5.0, NZD 3,420 for 4.0 to under 4.5, NZD 5,100 for 3.5 to under 4.0 and NZD 6,795 for less than 3.5. Similar tables cover the other accepted tests. INZ says that people who cannot speak English at all, or who do not take the test, must pay the maximum charge. Parent Resident Visa applicants can choose lessons as their own way to meet the requirement, paying only the lowest fee, but principal applicants for other visas cannot use the lesson option for themselves.

The tests INZ accepts

INZ says the test must be sat in person at a test centre, that a result must be no more than 2 years old at the time of application, and that tests taken remotely, such as ‘at home’ tests, are not acceptable. It lists IELTS (General or Academic, including One Skill Retake), TOEFL iBT, PTE Academic, Cambridge English B2 First and B2 First for Schools, and the Occupational English Test for health care professionals. The applicant can choose which test to take. The site’s article on English tests for Australian visas shows how another country handles the same at-home question.

Who arranges and provides the classes

INZ says the Tertiary Education Commission (TEC) arranges the ESOL tuition and that INZ pays the class fees to the TEC. There are many course providers across the country.

Common questions

Can I use my English-speaking background for a skilled residence visa?

No. INZ says a background cannot be used as evidence for skilled residence visas or the Accredited Employer Work Visa.

Can I take the test at home?

No. INZ says remote or at-home tests are not acceptable.

The bottom line

For some New Zealand resident visas, INZ accepts an English-speaking background, and partners and dependants aged 16 and over who do not meet the test standard can have classes paid for in advance. Higher-level visas need test results, all tests must be sat in person and be under 2 years old, and the fees and eligible visas should be checked on the INZ pages for the specific visa.

Sources

• Immigration New Zealand, “Meeting English language requirements” (immigration.govt.nz)
• Immigration New Zealand, “Learning English for families of resident visa applicants” (immigration.govt.nz)

Falling entries for language GCSEs in England have prompted a series of government programmes. In September 2025 the Department for Education (DfE) published an interim evaluation of several of them, prepared by the Institute for Employment Studies and the National Institute of Economic and Social Research. This article summarises the report’s executive summary and findings. It concerns schools in England, and the findings are based on surveys and interviews with selected schools, so they describe what participants said and not the whole country. It is general information for learners and parents, not education advice.

What was evaluated

The report says the evaluation looked at the Language Hub programme, the British Council’s Language Assistants programme, UK German Connection and the German Promotion Project. It says the evaluation was set up in the context of a decrease in the uptake of languages at GCSE, especially among disadvantaged pupils. The findings draw on surveys carried out between April and November 2024 with staff and pupils from 9 Lead Hub schools, 16 partner schools, 9 Language Assistant host schools and 5 comparator schools, plus 465 British Council Language Assistants, along with interviews and case-study visits. The report states that in December 2024 a decision was made to discontinue the Language Hubs programme, that all data were collected before this decision, and that the DfE is continuing to fund the National Consortium for Languages Education (NCLE) to deliver a new support programme built around an online professional development platform.

What pupils said about taking a GCSE

Pupils who chose a language GCSE were motivated by enthusiasm for languages and a sense that the qualification would be beneficial. Those who decided against it were more interested in other subjects and thought languages did not fit their other choices. Some believed they were not good at languages, with Year 7 pupils showing the lowest confidence. Teachers said many pupils and families did not see languages as a core subject, and that pupils commonly regarded languages as a difficult subject, especially at GCSE, and were aware of perceived discrepancies in grading compared with other subjects. The site’s article on why GCSE French and German grading was adjusted looks at the grading history behind that perception.

These are perceptions reported by staff and pupils in the sample. The report does not measure grading or take-up in the way a national dataset would, and the interviews came from schools taking part in the programme, which the report itself notes may make participants more engaged than others.

How languages were organised

The report found marked variety across participating schools in languages offered, pupil choice, grouping, curriculum time (from one lesson a week to one a day) and teaching methods. The most common languages offered were French, Spanish and German, with occasional Mandarin or Italian. About three-fifths of pupils in Lead Hub schools said a language was mandatory at key stage 4, while most pupils in partner and comparator schools said it was optional. Nine out of ten pupils (89%) said they had learnt languages at primary school before Year 7, mostly French (81% of those who had). Most teachers interviewed followed the recommendations of the 2016 Modern Foreign Languages Pedagogy Review, which emphasise grammar, phonics and vocabulary, and the report noted an increased focus on phonics. The site’s article on why England’s national curriculum requirement stops at 14 explains the policy backdrop.

Home and heritage languages

The report found that staff in most Lead Hub schools saw improving support for home heritage and community languages as a priority. Some could offer lessons for native speakers outside curriculum time and help with exam preparation, while others could offer little. The challenges listed were finding teachers to support exam preparation, finding a space and an examiner, and avoiding clashes with other GCSEs. Pupils who spoke these languages were not, according to pupil reports, more or less interested in taking a language GCSE than pupils overall, although staff had expected them to be more interested.

Recruitment and Language Assistants

The report describes recruitment and retention as a huge challenge for language teaching, noting that many participants gave instances of their own or a nearby school struggling to recruit despite incentives. On Language Assistants, it says 92% of the 465 assistants surveyed rated their experience as positive, and 97% of staff in schools employing modern language assistants agreed they were beneficial to pupils. The main challenge for people becoming assistants was post-Brexit changes in the right to work in the UK and EU. The report notes that 70% of assistants reported spending between £3,000 and £7,499 while on placement, and 51% said they had spent more than expected. These are survey results from one cohort in 2023 to 2024.

What it could not show

The evaluation is interim and reports on the first year. It does not measure whether the programmes raised GCSE entries or attainment; the report says early evidence suggested the Language Hub programme was beginning to affect practice. The DfE’s programme for Latin was reviewed elsewhere on this site in the article on the Latin Excellence Programme.

Common questions

Does the report say languages are declining?

It says the evaluation was set in the context of a decrease in the uptake of languages at GCSE, especially among disadvantaged pupils, but its own findings are survey-based. A DfE press release of 14 September 2023, announcing the hubs, said modern foreign languages GCSE entries had risen 5.1% in 2023 compared with 2022 and 9.2% compared with 2019, so the entry picture depends on the years compared.

Are Language Hubs still running?

The report says the programme was discontinued and replaced by a new programme run by NCLE with a core online platform.

The bottom line

The DfE’s interim evaluation suggests that in the schools studied, pupils opting out of language GCSEs did so mainly because they preferred other subjects, doubted their ability or saw languages as difficult and non-essential, while teachers highlighted recruitment and heritage-language support as pressures. The findings come from selected schools and cannot show what causes national trends.

Sources

• Institute for Employment Studies and NIESR for the Department for Education, “Language programmes evaluation: Interim report” (September 2025), GOV.UK (assets.publishing.service.gov.uk)
• GOV.UK, “More pupils of all ages to study languages”

Australia asks for evidence of English for some visas, and the list of approved tests changed in August 2025. This article summarises the Australian Department of Home Affairs pages “English language visa requirements”, “Competent English” and “Vocational English”. It concerns Australian visa applications only; the UK and Canadian systems are covered elsewhere on this site, including the article on language tests for Canadian Express Entry. The department says applicants must check the level of English and evidence required for the specific visa they want, and this article is general information, not migration advice.

Why the tests matter

The department says it requires evidence of English proficiency for some visa applications, to manage immigration risk and to ensure visa holders can participate fully in the Australian community. Evidence comes from several approved tests, which may be computer-based or paper-based and must take place in a secure testing centre. For visa-specific scores and evidence rules, it points applicants to the “getting a visa” pages for each subclass.

Tests accepted from 7 August 2025

On 7 August 2025 the approved tests changed. For tests taken on or after that date, the department accepts test scores from:

• Cambridge C1 Advanced;
• CELPIP General (Canadian English Language Proficiency Index Program);
• IELTS Academic and IELTS General Training, including One Skill Retake;
• LANGUAGECERT Academic;
• Michigan English Test (MET), including Single Section Retake;
• Occupational English Test (OET);
• Pearson Test of English (PTE) Academic;
• TOEFL iBT.

The department says that for TOEFL iBT to be valid for Australian visa purposes, the applicant must select “Taking TOEFL for Australia” when registering; results not registered under that pathway are not eligible. It also warns that PTE Academic keeps the same name as the earlier version, but the test and its scores are different. OET moved from an alphabetical to a numerical scoring format on 7 August 2025, and the department says OET does not currently give overall results on score reports, so an overall score must be requested from OET.

Tests taken before that date

For tests taken on or before 6 August 2025, the department says results may still be used until 6 August 2028, inclusive, depending on the visa. Its Competent and Vocational English pages say a result from before 7 August 2025 may still be valid for up to 3 years, depending on the visa subclass. The department lists the earlier accepted tests as Cambridge English (CAE, also known as C1 Advanced), IELTS, PTE Academic, OET and TOEFL iBT.

The five English levels

The department groups requirements into Functional, Vocational, Competent, Proficient and Superior English and publishes a page for each. Which level applies depends on the visa. It says English requirements are set in instruments made under the Migration Regulations 1994, including the Migration (Evidence of Functional English Language Proficiency) Instrument 2025 and the Migration (Specification of Language Tests, Test Scores and Passports) Instrument 2025, which are available from the Federal Register of Legislation.

Sample scores

For Competent English, the department lists minimum scores in each of four components (listening, reading, writing, speaking) for tests taken on or after 7 August 2025. IELTS Academic and IELTS General Training require at least 6 in each component. CELPIP General requires 7 in each. For PTE Academic the minimums are 47 for listening, 48 for reading, 51 for writing and 54 for speaking; for TOEFL iBT they are 16, 16, 19 and 19; for Cambridge C1 Advanced, 163, 163, 170 and 179.

For Vocational English the required IELTS score is 5 in each component, and for CELPIP General 5 in each; PTE Academic minimums are 33, 36, 29 and 24 for listening, reading, writing and speaking, and TOEFL iBT minimums are 8, 8, 9 and 14. The pages state that scores are needed in each of the four components, so a strong result in one skill cannot offset a weak one.

Passports and the three-year window

Both pages say that, alternatively, an applicant can show they are a citizen of, and hold a valid passport issued by, Canada, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland or the United States of America. Otherwise the applicant must have achieved the required test score in the 3 years before the visa application, depending on the visa subclass.

Why at-home tests are refused

The department says it does not accept evidence from English tests delivered completely online, also known as remote-proctored or at-home. Its examples of tests it does not accept are CELPIP Online, IELTS Online, LANGUAGECERT Academic Online, MET Digital (taken at home), OET@Home and TOEFL iBT Home Edition. An applicant should therefore book a place at a secure test centre rather than an online version of the same brand.

Common questions

Does an old IELTS result still work?

The department says results from tests taken on or before 6 August 2025 may be used until 6 August 2028, inclusive, depending on the visa.

Can I take the exam at home?

No. The department says tests must take place in a secure testing centre and it does not accept completely online tests.

Do British citizens need to take a test?

The pages list a passport from the United Kingdom as one way to show Vocational and Competent English, but requirements vary by visa, so the visa page should be checked.

The bottom line

For Australian visas, the approved tests changed on 7 August 2025, at-home versions are not accepted, TOEFL results must be registered under “Taking TOEFL for Australia”, and scores are needed in every component at the level the visa sets. Older results can still be used until 6 August 2028 for some visas. The visa page for the relevant subclass is the authority.

Sources

• Australian Department of Home Affairs, “English language visa requirements” (immi.homeaffairs.gov.au)
• Australian Department of Home Affairs, “Competent English” (immi.homeaffairs.gov.au)
• Australian Department of Home Affairs, “Vocational English” (immi.homeaffairs.gov.au)

Interpreting in a courtroom is a different discipline from conversation, and the United States federal courts run their own classification system rather than relying on a general language qualification. This article summarises pages published by the US federal judiciary (uscourts.gov) on federal court interpreters, the interpreter categories and the Federal Court Interpreter Certification Examination (FCICE). It covers only the federal system, which under the Court Interpreters Act (28 U.S.C. §1827) concerns judicial proceedings instituted by the United States; state court arrangements are separate and are not described here. For the UK equivalent, see the site’s article on what qualifies someone for court, police and NHS interpreting. This is general information, not career advice.

What the law provides

The federal judiciary says the Court Interpreters Act provides that the Director of the Administrative Office of the United States Courts shall prescribe, determine and certify the qualifications of persons who may serve as certified interpreters, when the Director considers certification merited. It applies to people who are hearing impaired, and to people who speak only or primarily a language other than English, in judicial proceedings instituted by the United States. The judiciary says competent interpreters are critical to ensure that justice is carried out fairly, and that the skills needed are highly complex because courtroom communication may involve specialised and legal terminology, formal and informal registers, dialect, jargon and nuances of meaning.

Three categories of interpreter

The Administrative Office classifies interpreters into three categories.

• Certified interpreters have passed the Administrative Office certification examination. The judiciary says certification programmes have been developed for Spanish, Navajo and Haitian Creole, and that those for Navajo and Haitian Creole are no longer offered. Where a certified interpreter exists in these languages, courts will select one if the judge determines that a certified interpreter is reasonably available.
• Professionally qualified interpreters work in languages where the Administrative Office runs no certification exam. They can be categorised as professionally qualified by submitting documentation that they meet one of the listed criteria.
• Language skilled (ad hoc) interpreters do not meet those criteria but can demonstrate to the court’s satisfaction that they can interpret court proceedings from English into a designated language and back.

For languages other than Spanish, Navajo and Haitian Creole, the local federal court decides case by case whether a prospective interpreter is professionally qualified or language skilled.

How to become professionally qualified

The judiciary lists the ways to qualify. An interpreter can have passed the US Department of State conference or seminar interpreter test in a language pair that includes English and the target language (the State Department escort interpreter test is not accepted), or the United Nations interpreter test in a pair including English. They can have passed the full version of an oral certification, criterion-referenced performance examination developed by the National Center for State Courts. They can be a current member in good standing of the International Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) or the American Association of Language Specialists (TAALS), with English and the target language as the pair. For sign language, the qualifying route is the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf’s Specialist Certificate: Legal (SC:L).

The certification exam

The FCICE is offered for Spanish/English only, which the judiciary says reflects the primary interpreting need in the federal courts. It has two phases. Phase One is a computer-administered written screener with a multiple-choice test of English proficiency and one of Spanish proficiency. It may be taken only once per testing period, and scores are given on the same day. Passing it is required to sit Phase Two.

Phase Two is an oral examination testing the three modes of court interpreting: sight translation, simultaneous interpretation and consecutive interpretation of discourse. Candidates must perform these bi-directionally, and test items include formal and informal or colloquial language, technical and legal terminology and specialised vocabulary. The judiciary states that the written and oral examinations will be administered in 2027, that registration is currently closed, and that registration dates will be announced in late December 2026. The exam is not offered continuously, so timing matters to anyone planning a route into this work.

Training and preparation

The federal courts do not offer interpreter training. Prospective interpreters must find training themselves, and the judiciary points to organisations including the National Association of Judiciary Interpreters and Translators, the American Translators Association, the National Center for State Courts’ language access section and AIIC. It publishes a Federal Court Interpreter Orientation Manual and Glossary, Standards for Performance and Professional Responsibility, and online practice exams for both phases.

Published daily fees

The judiciary publishes different rates for each category. The current fees are $566 for a full day, $320 for a half day and $80 an hour for overtime for federally certified interpreters; $495, $280 and $70 for professionally qualified interpreters; and $350, $190 and $44 for language skilled interpreters. From 1 October 2026, the judiciary’s fiscal year 2027 fees will apply: $617, $349 and $87 for certified interpreters; $540, $305 and $76 for professionally qualified interpreters; and $382, $207 and $48 for language skilled interpreters. The judiciary says certified and professionally qualified interpreters are paid at a higher rate than language skilled or ad hoc interpreters.

Common questions

Is there a federal certification for French or Mandarin?

No. The judiciary says certification programmes have been developed only for Spanish, Navajo and Haitian Creole, and that the last two are no longer offered. Other languages are classified as professionally qualified or language skilled.

Can I train through the federal courts?

No. The judiciary says it does not offer interpreter training.

The bottom line

The federal system rewards documented qualifications: Spanish/English interpreters can pursue the two-phase FCICE, while those in other languages can apply for professionally qualified status through State Department, United Nations, National Center for State Courts, AIIC, TAALS or RID credentials, or work as language skilled interpreters. Fees rise from 1 October 2026, and the next exams are due in 2027.

Sources

• US Courts, “Federal Court Interpreters” (uscourts.gov)
• US Courts, “Interpreter Categories” (uscourts.gov)
• US Courts, “Federal Court Interpreter Certification Examination” (uscourts.gov)

GCSE French, German and Spanish in England were reshaped around a defined vocabulary list, a marked change from earlier courses in which topic areas set the content. This article summarises the Department for Education (DfE) document “French, German and Spanish GCSE subject content” (September 2025 version) and an AQA news item of 16 September 2025 explaining a minor update to its specifications. The subject content applies to GCSE specifications offered in England. Wales and Northern Ireland run their own qualification systems, and Scotland uses different national qualifications, so those systems are not described here. This is general information; each awarding organisation’s specification is the definitive guide for a given course.

What the document is

The DfE says the subject content sets out the knowledge, understanding and skills common to all GCSE specifications in a subject, and provides, together with the assessment objectives, the framework within which awarding organisations write their specifications. The September 2025 document says it incorporates updates from versions published in February 2025 and May 2022, and that it has been effective since the academic year beginning in September 2024. It states that linguistic content will focus largely, but not exclusively, on the most commonly occurring vocabulary of each language, and that students are expected to know and use it receptively and productively, in spoken and written form, with approximately equal emphasis on each.

The vocabulary lists

The subject content says students are expected to know 1,200 lexical items for foundation tier and a further 500 for higher tier, so 1,700 in total at higher tier. They are also expected to know words that can be regularly inflected and, for reading only, regularly derived from the listed items using the grammar specified.

The lists must be compiled with reference to frequency of occurrence in large, modern corpora, and at least 85% of the 1,200 and 1,700 words must come from the 2,000 most frequent words of the most widely used standard forms of the language. Words with several meanings or parts of speech are to be listed as one entry, with all English equivalents that could be tested provided.

AQA’s September 2025 news item says that the vocabulary list totals remain 1,200 at foundation tier and 1,700 at higher tier, and that it removed individual words only where they can be reached through the grammar rules, adding items to maintain the totals.

What students must do

The subject content requires GCSE specifications to have students understand written texts and spoken extracts. Spoken extracts are delivered at a pace no faster than moderate, with each word clearly discernible. Students must also undertake dictation of short spoken extracts, including some vocabulary from outside the list, with credit for accurate spelling; write accurately in response to simple and familiar stimuli; and translate short sentences or texts in writing from the language into English and vice versa. They must infer plausible meanings of single unseen words from context.

For speaking, students read aloud a short text and take part in a short unprepared conversation about it, undertake role plays, and talk about visual stimuli, extending that into a short unprepared interaction. Comprehension questions on written and spoken texts are in English.

Unseen words in reading texts

For reading only, the content allows higher and overlapping tier texts to include a small number of words outside the vocabulary list, with English meanings supplied next to the text and no more than 2% of the words glossed. Up to a further 2% can be cognates not on the list. For spoken and written production, students get equal credit for language beyond the defined content that fulfils the task.

Grammar and sounds

The grammar to be learnt in each language, and the sound-symbol correspondences, are set out in annexes. The document also says students should learn the principles by which spelling represents sounds and use clear, comprehensible pronunciation. AQA’s summary of the 2025 update lists some of the changes: certain grammar requirements previously at higher tier moved to foundation tier, including the reflexive use of verbs in the singular and plural, plural reflexive pronouns in French and Spanish, dative plural nouns in German, and the German ohne/statt … zu and um … zu constructions and Spanish antes de and después de plus infinitive. It says words listed under one part of speech may now be used as another when the meaning is equivalent, and that derived forms may be used in other skills as long as they are clearly recognisable as derived from a listed base form. AQA describes these changes as minor and not significantly affecting teaching and learning.

What this means for learners and adult returners

The site’s explanation of what GCSE and A-level grades certify covers grading, and the guide to taking a language GCSE as a private candidate covers entry. On level, the site’s article on CEFR levels explains the framework often used to compare qualifications.

Common questions

Do all exam boards use the same word list?

The subject content sets the total size and rules, but each awarding organisation writes its own specification and list; AQA, for example, publishes lists within its specifications.

Does this apply in Wales or Northern Ireland?

The DfE document sets content for GCSE specifications in England. Wales and Northern Ireland have separate qualification arrangements.

The bottom line

The DfE subject content for GCSE French, German and Spanish in England defines a 1,200-item foundation and 1,700-item higher vocabulary, at least 85% drawn from the 2,000 most frequent words, and requires listening, reading, dictation, translation, writing and speaking. AQA’s 2025 summary describes the latest changes as minor. Awarding organisations’ specifications hold the definitive lists.

Sources

• Department for Education, “French, German and Spanish GCSE subject content” (September 2025), GOV.UK (assets.publishing.service.gov.uk)
• AQA, news item on GCSE French, German and Spanish specification updates (16 September 2025) (aqa.org.uk)